Current Affairs 8th Class

Women and Caste Reforms     'One third of India's population is now governed by Chief Ministers who are women ...' Trisha's mother said reading the morning news headlines aloud. Hearing this, Trisha asked 'What is such a big deal about it, mother?' Her grandmother chipped in, 'It's a big deal for us, the women in India'. 'Why, now women are working in all professions,' said Trisha. 'But before India became independent, the condition of women in India was very bad in the earlier centuries' said her mother. 'Then how did such a dramatic change take place for women?', asked Trisha. 'This was the result of the great social reforms...' Trisha's mother began telling her how the status of women has been changing over time. Let us take a look at it.   During the medieval and early modern period, many social evils were prevalent in the Indian society. The status of women was very low. They were oppressed and exploited by the society. The practice of sati was prevalent in society. According to this custom, widow was forced to jump alive on her husband's funeral pyre. Child marriage, polygamy, dowry system and female infanticide were common practices. Moreover, women were not educated and were denied opportunities to acquire knowledge, property and social status. Widows were not allowed to remarry and had to lead lives of humiliation.   Another social evil that plagued the Indian society was the caste system. The life of a person was governed by the caste to which he belonged. Marriages across caste lines were strictly forbidden. The Brahma-Has were the elite and respected people. The Kshatriyas and Vaishyas had rights to worship in temples but the Shudras were not allowed to offer sacrifice to the Gods. They were considered untouchables, and were barred from entering the temples. They could not use the village well, as it would pollute the water and make it unfit for drinking for the higher castes'. The untouchables did jobs that no one else would do like?cleaning animal carcasses and leather work. They could not be cremated when they died.   WOMEN'S EMANCIPATION   The 19th century was in very many ways the 'age of women', as efforts were made for the upliftment of the status of women. With the British rule came the western education which gave rise to a group of radical and new-thinking reformers. They realised the evils prevalent in the society and were determined to bring about a change. Many reforms were introduced by different reformers who took up this cause with fervor. The British helped by providing a boost to the work of Indian reformers. Thus, due to the continuous efforts of Indian reformers and constant help from the British, there came about a gradual change in the position of women in modem India.   WOMEN REFORM MOVEMENTS   The reformers used modern methods of communication such as-newspapers, more...

  Education Under the British Rule     As part of a history project the students of Class 8 were taken to the museum in the city. When they entered the museum, they were awed to see various artefacts from the past. There were inscriptions on papers and even on copper plates. The guide told them that these were the 'farmans' or the royal orders. They wanted to read what was written on the 'farman' but the language was undecipherable to them. Their teacher told them that these were written in Persian and Sanskrit. Monica said, 'Oh yes, I remember, Persian was the official language of the Mughals.' Lalit asked his teacher, 'Did children of that time have to study these languages?' 'Did they go to school just as we do now?' Mohit chipped in, 'Why don't we study Persian now?' The teacher replied, 'All your queries will be answered when we study the next history chapter in the class.'   Initially, when the East India Company established itself in India, it showed very little interest in the education of the Indians. The Company, was busy in expanding lts dominions and consolidating its rule. The education of Indians became a topic of interest among the East India Company officials only after the outset of the Company's rule in Bengal. The British felt that since they were ruling India, they need to 'civilise' Indians, who they considered were without values. This led to many conflicting opinions and debates as to how this could be done.   BRITISH POLICY OF EDUCATION   The Charter Act of 1813 finally looked into the problem of education and allotted a sum of Rs. 1 lakh to be spent on education in India. The British realised that it would be advantageous to have educated Indians in administrative positions. Also/ the educated Indians would form a class of loyalists towards the British. However/ it created a controversy between the Orientalists and the Anglicists on the medium of instruction.   THE ORIENTALISTS   The Orientalist school of thought wanted to encourage the indigenous system of education in India. Sir William Jones was an Orientalist. He was serving as a judge in the High Court at Calcutta. He was a linguist and had studied several languages like?Latin, Greek, French, English, Arabic, Persian and even Sanskrit. He admired India's culture and heritage. He also translated many traditional Hindu sacred texts into English. He was a great scholar and visionary. He realised that India had a very rich cultural heritage. Jones declared that the Sanskrit language is more perfect than any other language.     Henry Thomas Colebrooke was another admirer of Indian culture and heritage. He also studied Indian languages and translated Sanskrit and Persian works into English. William Jones together with Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed set up the Asiatic Society of Bengal. They more...

  Crafts and Industries     One day while in the village on vacation, Kartic's father asked him to go to the weaver's house and bring the chaddar that he had ordered the weaver to make. When Kartic saw the weaver making cloth on a machine he was fascinated. He saw the weaver making some pattern on the cloth. It was thick and heavy. He asked the weaver, 'Can't you make a finer and smoother cloth?' The weaver smiled at him and said that once his forefathers used to make fine cloths with patterns and bright colours. Kartic wanted to ask him more questions about those cloths, the pattern and why he could not weave them now but he had to rush back home. He thought he could ask his history teacher about the weavers of earlier times.     As you can see in the picture given above, Surat was an important port on the western coast of India. Also, it had important industries like textiles and iron and steel. It clearly shows that crafts and industries flourished in India before the British came to India. India was exporting its goods across the world. Indian rulers patronised crafts and large demands for handicrafts came from royal courts and urban aristocrats. Cotton from Dacca, Gujarat and Masulipatnam; the silk fabrics of Murshidabad, Lahore and Agra; woollen shawls and carpets of Agra, Lahore and Kashmir, etc., were in high demand; both in India and abroad. Indian handicrafts industry had reached a high level of excellence and enjoyed a worldwide reputation. India enjoyed extensive trade on handicrafts, within the country and with other countries of Asia and Europe. The reason for India's favourable foreign trade was its excellence in local production. Surat in Gujarat on western coast was one of the important ports of Indian Ocean Trade.     The British initially came as traders to India. They bought Indian goods and sold them at high prices in Europe and made huge profits. However, the scenario changed with the Industrial Revolution in Britain. The British now saw India as a supplier of cheap raw materials for its industries and a market for its finished products. This had a deep impact on the Indian industries. In this chapter we will focus on the effect of colonial rule and the Industrial Revolution on Indian industries, particularly the textile and iron industry.   History Reveals According to Robert Clive, India was a country of inexhaustible riches and the one which could not fail to make its masters the richest corporation in the world.   THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY IN INDIA   The Indian artisans were famous for their skills all over the world. Towns like?Dacca, Murshidabad, Surat, Ahmedabad, Lucknow, Chanderi, Bangalore, Aurangabad, Vishakhapatnam and Coimbatore were nourishing centres of the textile industry.   OTHER more...

   Colonialism and Urban Change     The British came to India as traders and gradually became the rulers of India. During their rule, they brought about many changes. They built big cities to glorify their power. However, some cities suffered a decline while other like Delhi were completely transformed during and after the British rule.   Colonialism had its impact on the Indian cities as well. But the impact varied from city to city. Some cities declined whereas others flourished. Industrialisation had led to urbanisation in the west. However, this was not so for India.   CHANGING FORTUNES OF CITIES   The Presidency cities like-Calcutta, Madras and Bombay became very important and developed rapidly during the British period. Calcutta became a colonial metropolis. Both, the British and the indigenous elite contributed to the growth of the city. With further British expansion, it became the capital of the British Empire in India. Bombay became a major commercial and industrial centre. Madras was an important hub in South India. The British chose it because it provided a natural harbor which gave easy access to the maritime trade. Earlier, town?s like-Dacca, Mushidabad, Ahemdabad, Masulipatnam, Chanderi and many others were flourishing centres of the textile industry. These declined because there was a demand for cheap British made goods. New ports like Bombay gained importance and Masulipatnam, an old port declined. Similarly, the capital cities of the rulers whose kingdoms were annexed by the British, declined. Thus, there was widespread de-urbanisation in India.   TALE OF A CAPITAL CITY: DELHI   Delhi has been the capital of several empires in history. It was built near the river Yamuna. For a period of 1000 years, it has been the site of at least eight capital cities created by different rulers. Many of these capitals were built in a small area of 60 square miles within Delhi. Some of them are reduced to villages today and the ruins act as a testimony of the evolution of times, while some others have been modernized. Although Delhi was destroyed many times, each time a New Delhi arose, right next to the ruins.       MUGHAL CAPITAL?SHAHJAHANABAD   Shahjahanabad, the seventeenth century city of Delhi, was built by Shah Jahan between 1639 and 1648. It was the seventh city of Delhi. The city was enclosed by about ten kilometer long wall. It spread out over a large area along the banks of river Yamuna. The city had fourteen gates only four of which exist today.   Q.        why do you think Shahjahanabad was built near the River Yamuna?   The walled city included broad avenues with water channels, markets, mosques, gardens, houses of the nobility, and the fortified palace known as the Red Fort or Lal Qila. Built of red sandstone, the Red Fort constituted more...

  Colonialism and Tribal Societies   Before the arrival of the Europeans in the 15th century, the United States was inhabited by Native Americans. They are the indigenous people of America. In this chapter we shall learn about the original inhabitants of India.   WHO WERE TRIBAL?   Tribal communities or 'adivasis' are some of the earliest inhabitants of the Indian sub-continent. They are mostly found concentrated in hilly or forested areas. A tribal society is a primitive society. All tribe members are related by blood. They have their own political organisation. Each tribe has its own religion, customs, culture and lifestyle. However, unlike the caste based society, they believe in equality and there are no caste divisions. As colonial rule was established in India, many tribal revolts broke out to challenge the alien rule. The tribal community offered resistance against the British rule and faced some tragic consequences, in the early years of colonisation.     MEANS OF TRIBAL LIVELIHOOD   The economy of most tribes was subsistence oriented. They survived mainly on hunting, gathering and fishing. Even those tribes which depended on agriculture, had to supplement their income with hunting and collecting forest products. Different tribes had different means of livelihood.   Hunters and gatherers Many tribes depended on forester sources for their survival. The Khonds of Orissa and the Baigas of Central India were hunters and gatherers. They lived by hunting wild animals, fishing and gathering wild plant foods. They shared the meat of the hunt among their community. They collected forest products like?honey, fruits, nuts, firewood and medicinal herbs for their daily needs. They even extracted oil from sal and mahua trees. They sold these products in the local market. They also made ropes and baskets and sold them for other things that they required. They lived in tiny temporary huts made out of the materials available in the forest.     The forest was their home and they felt secure in the forests. Moreover, they did not take more than their requirement from the forest. They got supplies of food grains by bartering forest produce. Sometimes, when there was scarcity of forest products, they even worked as labourers in the nearby villages. They even worked in fields or carried loads. They bought their necessities from whatever money they earned. Sometimes, the tribals had to borrow money from moneylenders to buy essential commodities from traders. The money lenders charged very high rates of interest. The tribals often found themselves in a never ending cycle of debt.   Herding and Rearing Many tribes lived by herding and rearing animals like sheep and cattle. They were pastoralists and moved about in search of pasture lands. They exchanged animal products like-milk, butter and wool for other things that they required, e.g. Gaddis of Himachal more...

  Rural Life Under the British Rule   After the Battle of Plassey, the British were firmly established in India both politically and economically. From traders they had become political masters. Their main interest lay in the maximisation of their profits. They reaped huge profits as traders, and now the whole country was their domain and they exploited it to the maximum.   The Battle of Plassey (1757) made the British East India Company the political master of Bengal. After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the East India Company got the diwani rights for Bengal, Bihar and Orissa from the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II in 1765. This was a great achievement on part of the Company. The Company now had the responsibility of financial administration of these territories. It had to organise the administration and increase the revenue collection.     WHY DID THE EAST INDIA COMPANY NEED FUNDS?   The primary function of the East India Company was to buy spices, cotton, indigo and other raw materials and sell them at huge profits in the European markets. The Company needed money to invest in buying these commodities. Initially they brought gold and silver from England but later on, they thought of financing its trade from India itself. It required money to maintain huge army to fight wars against other European powers and Indian rulers. Also, it had to send money to England in order to pay dividends to the shareholders of the Company. Another major expense of the Company was paying the officers of the administrative set up in India.   Thus, to fulfil its requirements for money, the East India Company turned its attention towards agriculture which was the chief source of income. The Company introduced new revenue policies (settlements) in agriculture. All the policies were intended to increase their profits, even if those policies harmed the peasants.   Q. why did the East India Company need increasing amounts of funds?     THE PROBLEM WITH REVENUE COLLECTION   The East India Company was a trading concern but it had acquired the right to collect revenue. The Company did not want to set up a system of revenue collection. Its main objection was to maximise revenue collection. However, the economy of Bengal was facing a decline. Farmers were unable to pay their dues. Artisans could not earn their livelihood because they had to sell their goods at lower prices to the Company. Agricultural production was also declining.   Also, Bengal was hit by a devastating famine. The terrible famine in which one-third of the population perished. It was caused mainly due to lack of insight on the part of the officials of the East India Company. The officials of the Company were only interested in revenue collection.   History Reveals The Bengal famine and the devastation caused by it were the subject of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee's novel Anandamath.     THE NEED TO more...

  Expansion of British Power in India     Aurangzeb was the last great Mughal Emperor. His death in 1707 marked the end of a significant era in Indian history. Though the dynasty continued after him but the Mughal Empire gradually disintegrated and its power declined. This paved the way for the expansion of British power in India.     The later Mughals were poor administrators. Without effective central control, a number of provinces seceded from the empire and several regional kingdoms came into existence. The rise of independent regional kingdoms led to the disintegration of the Mughal Empire.     As the Empire became weak, the British gained control. They established their position by the middle of the nineteenth century and a large part of India came under their direct rule. The areas that remained independent were indirectly under the British influence. India thus became a British colony.     How did such a small nation grow into such a large and wealthy empire? The most astonishing story in Indian history was the advent of the British. It was not a result of deliberate planning. It had a humble beginning as a trading company set up to trade with the east. Later, it developed political interests and ended up ruling the entire country.   ADVENT OF EUROPEANS AS TRADERS     EXPANSION OF THE BRITISH; FROM TRADERS TO RULERS The Europeans had always been attracted to the resources and wealth of India. For some time, they were looking for a sea route to India for commercial reasons. The Indian subcontinent was famous for its spices.     The English East India Company was chartered by Queen Elizabeth in 1600 for developing trade with Asia for a period of 15 years. The Company had sole rights to trade with the east. The Company wanted to trade in commodities like pepper, cinnamon cloves, cardamom, cotton, silk, indigo, saltpetre, tea and opium. These goods were very popular in European markets and the Company would make huge profits in the trade. Since it was a mercantile trading company, it had exclusive rights to this trade without any competition and thus it could make huge financial gains.   History Reveals   Among the European powers, the Portuguese were the first to reach India after they had circled the whole of the African continent. Vasco da Gama arrived in Calicut on May 20th, 1498.   Soon other European trading companies arrived on the scene. The Portuguese set up a trading post in India. They later founded settlements at Goa, Cochin, Daman and Diu. Subsequently, other European powers like the Dutch and the French also established posts. The Dutch East India Company was established in 1602. The French East India Company was formed in 1642.   The British ships first arrived in Surat, India in 1608. In 1612, they set up a trading post at Surat. In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe was more...

  History ? When, Where and How   History is a study of the past. This is facilitated by dividing the past into blocks of time. This is called periodisation and it helps in the study and analysis of history.   IMPORTANCE OF DATES IN HISTORY   History is a study of the past events. Historical events need to be seen in the context of dates. A major part of history is about kings and rulers. Succession of a ruler to the throne, important battles fought by him and important events under his rule. All these can be expressed with reference to time, and dates.   Dates are important to history, because they help to show cause and effect relationships between events. By knowing exactly when things occurred, historians can make accurate comparisons. However, events and incidents have prolonged effect. We can always find cause and effect relation 'between the events, if we know their time and period correctly.   A Wedding ring of 1870's. This itself shows that dates are important even for a common man   However, it is not right to fix a date for changes which have happened over time. This is because the change is gradual. It is a process and not a sudden event. We cannot point a fixed date on which the Mughal period declined. This is because it did not declined in a day. It was a gradual process which happened over a period of time.   SELECTION OF DATES   Which dates are important? How do we choose and categorise important dates? The criteria for choosing a particular set of dates as important one, depends largely on the topic in focus. If the subject in focus changes, then another set of dates become important. For instance, in the medieval period, the literature available was written by the historians who were supported by the rulers themselves. But during the British period, the rule of each Governor-General was important. So, the dates are arranged in a manner where period of each Governor General has been described in terms of their policies and achievements. The British historians have glorified the rule of the East India Company. Thus, a new format is required for writing the history of this period.   Thus, history is divided into chapters. The focus of each chapter is different, and consequently, different dates are important in each chapter. For instance, if the focus of the chapter is on political changes during British rule, the dates of the wars won by the British against the Indian rulers will be important. In the other chapter, the focus is on socio-cultural changes during British rule, and then the dates of the policies that affected Indian society will be important.   PERIODISATION IN HISTORY   The demarcations of time into different periods more...

  A Popular Rebellion-The Revolt of 1857   During the colonial rule, the condition of the masses became so impoverished that they were compelled to raise their voice against the British. The Revolt of 1857 was a severe outburst of resentment against the British. Though it lasted for a few months only, it shook the foundation of British rule in India.   By 1857, almost the whole of India was under the control of the British. Indians suffered under the colonial rule. All Indians-kings, landlords, tribals, traders, artisans, peasants and soldiers were adversely affected by the oppressive policies of the East India Company and a feeling of discontentment was building up. There was a massive increase in rural poverty. Indians did not accept foreign rule passively and there were many revolts from time-to-time in different parts of the country. These were brutally suppressed by the British. In 1857, revolts broke out in the army and then spread to other parts of the country. It was a severe outburst of anger and discontent accumulated in the hearts of Indians.     CAUSES OF THE REVOLT   Many causes cumulatively started this revolt. Though this revolt broke out suddenly, it did not take shape in a day. There were many deeper reasons that are discussed here briefly.   POLITICAL CAUSES   The British policies of annexation caused resentment among the Indian rulers. The Subsidiary Alliance and the Doctrine of Lapse were just means of annexing the territories of the Indian rulers. You have already learned about them in the previous chapter. The rulers and the nawabs lost their powers because of the British residents stationed in their courts. This created a feeling of panic and insecurity among the rulers of the other states.   The British did not recognise adopted sons as heirs and the disposed rulers were refused pension. Many rulers tried to negotiate with the British but in vain. Rani of Jhansi had adopted a son and wanted the British to accept him as the heir to the throne. The last Peshwa, Baji Rao's adopted son, Nana Sahib was deprived of the pension his father was receiving.   ?      The British abolished titles. In 1849, Governor General Dalhousie announced that Bahadur Shah Zafar's successors would not be allowed to stay in the Red Fort or use the title of 'King'. The Company also stopped inscribing the Mughal king's name on the coins minted by it. ?      The promises made with the princes were ignored by the British as the Company became confident of its military and political powers. ?      Awadh had accepted the Subsidiary Alliance and more...

  Force and Pressure   Synopsis  

• A force is a push or a pull. It can cause any one, two or all of the following when applied to a body:

(a) cause movement or stop motion of an object (b) change its speed/direction of the motion of a body (c) change its shape and size of a body  

• Forces that are in contact with a body are muscular force, frictional force. Forces that are not in contact with a body and act from a distance are magnetic force, electrostatic force, gravitational force.

 

• Force is due to the interaction between two or more bodies.

 

• The strength of a force is expressed by its magnitude and is a vector quantity.

 

• Net force on an object can be zero if two (or more) forces acting on it in opposite directions are equal in magnitude.

 

• Frictional force is responsible for change of speed of an object. It tends to stop/slow down a moving object in the absence of external forces. Frictional force can be due to a surface, wind (drag) or water (ex. a moving boat stops in water if you stop rowing).

 

• Force acting on a unit area of a surface is called pressure. Pressure = Force/Area on which it acts.

Note: S.I. unit of force = newton S.I. unit of pressure = newton \[{{(metre)}^{-2}}\] or pascal  

• Pressure depends upon the area of contact.

 

• : A sharp needle causes more pain in the body as compared to a blunt object.

 

• Pressure exerted by water at the bottom of a container depends upon the height of the water column.

 

• Both liquids and gases exert pressure on the walls of a container in which they are stored.

 

• Liquids exert equal pressure at the same depth.

 

• Pressure exerted by the air surrounding the earth is called the atmospheric pressure. The reason we do not feel this pressure is due to the fact that the pressure inside our bodies (Our blood contains dissolved oxygen at a pressure, equal to or slightly more than the atmospheric pressure) is equal to the atmospheric pressure and hence, cancels the pressure from outside. Atmospheric pressure is measured in Pascals or kilopascals.

1 atmosphere (1 atm) = 101325 Pa or 101.325 k Pa.   Atmospheric pressure decreases with height (high altitude/mountains) and increases with depth (deep sea).