Current Affairs 7th Class

Category : 7th Class

 

The Mughal Empire

 

The Mughal dynasty established a grand empire in India. It was a glorious period of the Indian history. This dynasty unified and ruled India for more than 300 years. 'Mughal's the Persian name for the 'Mongols? The Mughal dynasty produced a rare sequence of competent rulers. The dynasty was noteworthy for its effective rule over much of India, for its administrative organization and for the ability of its rulers who maintained a record of unusual talent, through seven generations. Another merit was the attempt of the Mughals to integrate Hindus and Muslims into a united Indian empire.

 

INDIA AT THE ADVENT OF MUGHALS

 

From 1504, Babur was the ruler of Kabul which is now a part of Afghanistan. He was attracted to India for its wealth. At that time, Ibrahim Lodi (the Sultan on the Delhi throne) was very unpopular. There was no political stability. Babur was invited by Rana Sangha, the ruler of Mewar, Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab and Alam Khan, Ibrahim's uncle, to defeat Ibrahim Lodi and end the Great Delhi Sultanate. All of them hoped that Babur would leave from India after defeating Ibrahim Lodi and plundering the country. But Babur's intentions were somewhat different. Babur turned to India to satisfy his appetite for conquest. Also, he considered India as his territory since it had been conquered by his ancestor, Timur.

 

Sources of Information

By the time Mughals settled in India, paper was available. Thus we have profound numbers of literary sources of information for this period. Autobiographies of Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb are written in Persian language and are valuable sources of information. Other than these, Abul Fazal, Bdauni, Amir Khusrau, Abdul Hamid Lahori and Inayat Khan are other main contributors of this period. Foreign literature by Thomas Roe, William Hawkins and Francois Bernier; also contribute in knowing the Mughal Period deeply. Miniature painting of Mughal Period, coins and monuments available in abundance are other important sources of information this glorious era of Mughals.

 

EARLY MUGHALS AND THE SUR EMPIRE

 

Babur

The Mughal Empire was founded by Timurid prince Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur. He was a descendent of Timur from his father's side and Genghis Khan from his mother's side. He inherited Fargana at a very young age. He fought a number of wars and was so ferocious on the battlefield that he was given the title of 'tiger'.

 

Q. why did Babur consider India as his ancestral territory?

 

First Battle of Panipat?Babur was a seasoned military commander. He entered India in 1526 and routed the forces of the Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat. Although Babur's armed forces were lesser in number as compared to those of Ibrahim Lodi, Babur had both guns and cannons in his weapons. Cannons were previously unknown in India, and they brought destruction to Ibrahim Lodi's soldiers and also caused his elephants to stampede and trample their own army. Also, Babur was a military genius and achieved a resounding victory and the Sultan was killed. This battle ended the era of Delhi Sultanate and paved way for a new dynasty. This victory of the Mughals is often regarded as the "gunpowder victory".

 

 

 

 

 

History Reveals

Babur earned the nickname of Kalandhari for distributing wealth and precious stones amongst his people.

 

Battles of Khanua and Ghaghra?to secure his newly founded kingdom, Babur defeated the Rajput confederacy led by Rana Sangha of Mewar, at the Battle of Khanua in 1527. Though Rana Sangha offered stiff resistance but he was defeated. In 1529, the battle of Ghaghra was fought between Muhammad Lodi and Babur. Babur again turned victorious and it consolidated his power in India. He controlled all of northern India from the Indus River on the west to Bihar in the east and from the Himalayas to Gwalior in south. Thus, the Great Mughal Empire was established in India by Babur.

 

Mop no. 4.1 the Empire of Babur

 

Q. Why is the First Battle of Panipat regarded as a gunpowder victory?

 

Autobiography of Babur, 'Tuzk-e-Babri' or 'Baburnama is an important source of information. Besides describing political and military events, the book gives detailed description of the physical features, animals and birds, flowers and trees and the nature of the country. He built many gardens. Babur had a great love for fine arts and architecture. There was exceptional growth of fine arts during the very short period of Babur's rule.

 

Babur was courageous and patient. He encouraged trade with the west. He was tolerant towards other religions. He was fond of poetry and literature. He had a good knowledge of Turkish and Persian. He used to compose poetry in both the languages. He died in 1530 and was buried at Bagh-e-Babur garden in Kabul, a place ne chose himself for his burial.

 

Bagh-e-Babur, the tomb of Babur in Kabul

 

Humayun

Nasiruddin Humayun was the eldest son of Babur and succeeded to the throne. The empire that Humayun inherited after his father's death was very unstable and lacked strong administration. This made him face many problems from the very beginning. He also made a mistake in trusting his three brothers who fought for succession to the throne. They betrayed him many times and he forgave them again and again.

 

Battle of Chausa and Kanauj?He was confronted with a number of enemies like Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, Sher Shah Suri (also called Sher Khan) of Bihar. Humayun's first campaign was to confront Sher Khan in the battle of Chunar in 1532. Humayun emerged victorious and he pardoned Sher Khan who pleaded submission. This proved to be his fatal mistake. Humayun turned his attention towards Bahadur Shah and defeated him and annexed Gujarat, Malwa and the fort of Mandu. In the meantime, Sher Shah again gathered his forces and confronted Humayun at Chausa in 1539. He attacked the Mughal army at night and Humayun was defeated and he escaped for his life. Next year, in 1540, Humayun was again defeated by Sher Shah in the Battle of Kanauj.

 

History Reveals

Humayun's life is chronicled in a book known as Humayunnama, written by his sister Gulbadan Begum.

 

 

Sher Shah Suri

A Postal stamp issued in the honour or Sher Shah Suri

 

Sher Shah Suri was the founder of Sur dynasty in India. His original name was Farid and he was the son of a jagirdar He joined the service Babur and later Bahar Bihar. Once he killed a tiger the title of Sher Khan. He fought many battles with Humayun and finally got the throne of Delhi in 1540. He continued to expand his empire which extended from Indus in the east to Bengal in the west.

 

He was a brave soldier and a military genius and was an extremely able administrator. He was well educated and had mastered many languages. He evolved a system of administration which remained substantially unchanged till the advent of the British in India. He introduced a tax collection system, built roads along with resting areas for travellers, dug wells, made hospitals, free kitchens, organized mail services and the police. He is believed to be the first one to introduce "Rupaiya" and "Paisa" in place of "Tanka"

 

The Silver rupiya issued by Sher Shah Suri

 

Map No. 4.2 Sher Shah Suri?s Empire

 

He is also credited with the introduction of custom duty. He also developed the first postal system. The sarais developed along the road network also served as post offices. He established the foundations of a horse mounted post or horse courier system. He built several inns, mosques and laid down the network of roads the most famous among them being the Grand Trunk Road (GT Road).The fort called the Purana Qila or the Old Fort was also constructed by him. Sher Shah had a tragic death in an accidental explosion of gunpowder in 1545. His rule lasted for only 5 years but he was one of the greatest monarchs that had ever ruled India.

 

Return of Humayun? after his defeat at Kanauj, Humayun was a homeless wanderer. During his exile, Humayun's wife, Hamida Begum gave birth to the future emperor Akbar. Later, he fled to Persia, where he took political shelter. The Shah of Persia supported him and Humayun was able to attack and defeat the successor of Sher Shah Suri. He took control of

 

Humayun?s Tomb

 

Delhi in 1555, but died unexpectedly within six months of his return, after falling down from the steps of his library. Humayun was a gentle and humane person. He was cultured, polite and very generous. He was a keen astrologer. Humayun's mausoleum in Delhi is a devotion of Hamida Begum/ his widow, who took charge of its construction.

 

THE GREAT MUGHALS

 

AKBAR

 

Akbar

 

Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar succeeded Humayun in 1556. He was only thirteen years of age at that time but later rose to become the greatest Mughal emperor and the Mughal Empire reached its zenith under his rule.

 

 

 

Early Years

Akbar was born in Umarkot while Humayun had lost his empire and was a homeless wanderer. His early years were spent learning to hunt, run, and fight, but never learned to read or write. This lifestyle of his childhood made him a daring, powerful and a brave warrior but remained illiterate throughout his life. However, he had great interest in art, architecture, music and literature. During his initial years, Akbar was helped by his guardian, Bairam Khan. It was under his guidance that Akbar overcame the teething troubles1. At the age of 18, Akbar sent Bairam Khan on a pilgrimage to Mecca and took over the responsibility of the empire.

 

Akbarnama?A Historical Source

Abul Fazl was one of the nine gems in Akbar's court. He wrote the Akbarnama which gives us a comprehensive account of Akbar's reign. It is written in Persian and is in fact a biography of Akbar. It gives a vivid description of the social, economic, political and administrative set up of the empire. The third volume is called Ain-i-Akbari.

 

Akbar?s Court

 

Conquests

Akbar was eager to conquer more lands and embarked upon a policy of expansion. He fought the first Battle of Panipat against Sikandar Shah Suri of Punjab. However, when Akbar was busy leading assault against Sikandar Shah, Hemu, a Hindu warrior, attacked and claimed Delhi. The Second Battle of Panipat took place on 5th November 1556, between the Mughal Forces of Akbar and the army of Hemu. Akbar emerged victorious and Hemu was killed. The Second Battle of Panipat put an end to the Afghan rule and marked the real beginning of the Mughal Empire in India.

 

Q. Differentiate between the First and Second Battle of Panipat.

 

Akbar conquered Malwa, Gondwana and Chunargarh. He then turned his attention to Rajasthan and captured Chittor. Maharana Pratap refused to accept Akbar's suzerainty. The huge Mughal army confronted Maharana Pratap in the Battle of Haldighati in 1576. After a fierce battle, Akbar defeated Maharana Pratap. Akbar also conquered Gujarat followed by Surat. Gujarat was important for him since it was the gateway for western trade. With these conquests, his empire extended to the western coasts. Next he annexed Bengal, Bihar, Sindh, Baluchistan and Orissa. Now Akbar wanted to extend his empire to the south. He captured Ahmednagar, Khandesh, Berar and Daulatabad. The vast Mughal Empire now7 extended from Kabul in the west to Bengal in the east and from Kashmir in the north to Ahmednagar in the south.

 

Akbar was illiterate yet he had great love for learning. He surrounded himself with scholars

 

Mop no. 4.3 Akbar?s Empire

 

And had in his court the famous 'nine gems7 who were famous personalities from different fields. He implemented many social reforms, banned slavery and was tolerant to all religions. He died in 1605 and his body was buried at Sikandra.

 

JAHANGIR

 

Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir ascended the Mughal throne after Akbar's death in 1605. Jahangir is a Persian word which means "world conqueror". He was a successful and benevolent ruler.

 

CONTRIBUTION OF AKBAR                           

 

Administration

Akbar set up a highly centralised system of administration that helped him in consolidating his expanding empire. He headed the central administration and exercised absolute power. He was the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and the supreme judge. The council of ministers consisted of the vakil or prime minister, the qazi or chief judge, mansabdars and other ministers. Akbar regularly met his officials, ministers and common people. In the Diwan-e-Khas (Hall of Private Audience), he discussed the administrative affairs with the officials and ministers. He met the common people in the Diwan-e-Aam (Hall of Public Audience), accepted their petitions and solved their problems. Akbar's vast empire was divided into 15 provinces called subas. Each suba was administered by a governor called subedar who was appointed by the emperor. The subedar handled both civil and military matters. Another important official, called diwan, supervised the land revenue collection. He maintained the land records.

 

Rajput Policy

Akbar was a shrewd ruler. He realized that to establish an empire in a Hindu country like India, it was imperative to befriend the Rajputs. Also, he was impressed by their loyalty and bravery. He decided to seek the cooperation of the Rajputs to expand the Mughal Empire and he accepted the submission of Raja Bharmal of Amber (Jaipur) and welcomed a matrimonial alliance with the ruling family. He married Jodha Bai, the daughter of Raja Bharmal. Akbar also gave high ranks, titles and properties to the members of his Rajput family. Also, he did not force his Rajput wives to convert to Islam. Rajput customs were also observed in Akbar's court. Raja Man Singh and Raja Todar Mal were among the nine gems of his court. The Rajputs became loyal supporters and contributed towards strengthening and expanding the Akbar's empire.

 

Religious Policy

Akbar was tolerant towards all religions. He recruited and rewarded Hindu chiefs with the highest ranks in his government. He repealed the hated pilgrimage tax and jaziya tax which were paid by all non-Muslims. This discriminatory tax had been much resented and it gained Akbar a lot of good-will from the Hindu majority of his subjects. He celebrated Hindu festivals and even put a 'tika' on his forehead. He allowed temples to be built and encouraged Hindu-Muslim marriages.

 

He became a vegetarian and gave up hunting. Akbar built the 'Ibadat khana' or "house of worship' in Fatehpur Sikri. There he invited scholars of all religions to hold religious discussions and debates. He ushered in an era of religious tolerance based on the Sufi concept of 'Sulh-i-kul or "peace to all". Akbar was so convinced of the common features among religions that he even attempted to unite them in creating his very own religion, known as the Din-e-Ilahi or "the religion of God" which was a mixture of Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam. However, he did not force people to convert to his religion and this new religion did not last long.

 

Ibadat Khana at Fatchpur Sikri

Revenue System

Land and trade were two main sources of revenue generation. Akbar's 'finance minister Raja Todar Mal basically followed the land revenue system of the Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri. He formulated a new land revenue system which was called Todar Mal's Bandobast. Tax Ibadat khana at Fatehpur Sikri was assessed on every landholder of the empire. It was a radical innovation because earlier the nobility was rarely taxed. The Mughal officials had instructions to take care of the farmers' needs. In times of drought, the farmers were given loans. Land revenue was also reduced or totally waived for distressed farmers. Akbar also encouraged trade. During his reign, the Portuguese were allowed to set up trading posts on the west coast. The Indian traders exported spices, indigo and textiles. To facilitate trade, a standard currency in the form of gold, silver and copper coins was introduced.

 

He ruled the empire in peace and prosperity. He was learned and had mastered many languages. He was an able administrator and strengthened the Mughal Empire. Jahangir attempted to expand the Mughal Empire. Most of north India except Mewar was already under Mughal rule. The Mughal forces attacked Mewar and finally a peace treaty was signed with Mewar in 1615. In the northeast, the Mughals clashed with the Ahoms of Burma. The conquest of the Deccan was not fruitful.

 

A miniature painting showing 'Jahangir's Durber

Jahangir was a tolerant ruler .He attempted to reform society and was tolerant towards Hindus. However, relations with Sikhs were strained. The Sikh Guru, Arjun Dev, was put to death at Jahangir orders for giving assistance to 'Jahangir's Durbar Khusrau, Jahangir's

 

Rebellious son. He was famous for his "Chain of Justice", which was a golden chain attached to some bells outside his palace. Anyone in need of justice could pull the chain to meet the emperor. Agriculture, commerce and industries flourished during his rule.

 

Influence of Nur Jahan

 

Nur Jahan

 

Jahangir married Mehr-un-Nisa, the young widow of a Mughal officer. She was given the title of Nur Jahan, 'Light of the World7. She was very brave and it is said that once she even killed a tiger. She exercised considerable influence over Jahangir who is said to have relied heavily on her advice. Later, he handed over the complete reigns of administration to her. She promoted her relatives to high ranks. She signed royal Farmans and even had coins minted with her image. She became an effective political power in India. She also assisted Jahangir in designing the beautiful Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir.

 

It was during Jahangir's reign in 1615, that Sir Thomas Roe, the British ambassador visited the Mughal Emperor. He sought permission to set up trading posts in Surat. Jahangir

 

Revenue System

 

Land and trade were two main sources of revenue generation. Akbar's 'finance minister Raja Todar Mal basically followed the land revenue system of the Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri. He formulated a new land revenue system which was called Todar Mal's Bandobast. Tax was assessed on every landholder of the empire. It was a radical innovation because earlier the nobility was rarely taxed. The Mughal officials had instructions to take care of the farmers' needs. In times of drought, the farmers were given loans. Land revenue was also reduced or totally waived for distressed farmers. Akbar also encouraged trade. During his reign, the Portuguese were allowed to set up trading posts on the west coast. The Indian traders exported spices, indigo and textiles. To facilitate trade, a standard currency in the form of gold, silver and copper coins was introduced. He ruled the empire in peace and prosperity. He was learned and had mastered many languages. He was an able administrator and strengthened the Mughal Empire. Jahangir attempted to expand the Mughal Empire. Most of north India except Mewar was already under Mughal rule. The Mughal forces attacked Mewar and finally a peace treaty was signed with Mewar in 1615. In the northeast/ the Mughals clashed with the Ahoms of Burma. The conquest of the Deccan was not fruitful.

 

Granted permission but this later on had great consequences for India, as the British slowly established political hold over India. Jahangir was a great patron of arts. Art, painting, literature, and architecture prospered under Jahangir's rule. He was also a good writer and a nature lover. He penned down his life and his experiences in the form of an autobiography named Tuzk-e-Jahangiri.   His love for nature can be accessed from the accounts he recorded of all sorts of wildlife in his autobiography. He had a keen eye for paintings and collected many of them in his palace. Some of them are still found in museums.

 

History Reveals

Jahangir created a new city, "Jahangirabad" (now Dhaka) which became the capital of Mughal Bengal.

In 1627, Jahangir died due to ill health and was buried in a magnificent tomb at Shahdra, located in present day Pakistan.

 

SHAH JAHAN

 

Shahbuddin Mohammed Shah Jahan assumed the throne after Jahangir in 1628, as the fifth Mughal ruler of India. He succeeded the throne after revolting against his father, Jahangir. The name Shah Jahan means "Emperor of the World". During the reign of Shah Jahan, the Mughal Empire prospered greatly like never before. Also, the period of Shah Jahan?s rule in India is regarded as the 'Golden' age of Indian Architecture' there are numerous literary works           about Shah Jahan. Abdul Hamid wrote Padshah Nama. Another important source is Shah Jahan Nama written by Inayat Khan.

 

A Miniature painting depicting Shah Jahan?s Darbar

 

Shah Jahan was a brave and competent military leader and attempted expansion of his empire. He annexed Ahmednagar and the Rajput kingdoms of Baglana and Bundelkhand and then captured the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda in the Deccan. Shah Jahan also captured small kingdoms in Kashmir and the Himalayas. He repulsed the Portuguese in Bengal. His military campaigns led to the financial crisis.

 

Shah Jahan was a staunch Sunni Muslim. He kept a beard, avoided alcohol and fasted during Ramzan. He did not permit Hindus to wear Muslim dress or to keep Muslim slaves. Any disrespect to Islam was not tolerated. He imposed the pilgrim tax on Hindus but later revoked it.

 

Administration went on smoothly during Shah Jahan's reign. He was educated and looked into the administration personally. He welcomed scholars into his court and patronized painters, craftsmen and artists. Trade and commerce flourished through an improved system of roads and waterways.

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Shah Jahan married Mumtaz Mahal. After her death, he commissioned the building of

 

The Taj Mahal at Agra

 

A magnificent tomb for her. Designed by the Persian architect Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, and constructed of white marble, the Taj Mahal is considered the crowning achievement of Mughal architecture.

 

In 1638, he shifted his capital from Agra to a city in Delhi. Known as Shahjahanabad, this imperial city was walled and had broad streets, markets, gardens, water channels and the fortified palace known as the Lal Qila or Red Fort. He also constructed the Jama Masjid in Delhi and many more buildings.

 

His court was one of the great pomp and splendour. He had the exquisite peacock throne made of solid gold and embedded with precious stones like rubies, emeralds and diamonds. In September 1657 Shah Jahan fell ill, precipitating a struggle for succession between his four sons. The victor, Aurangzeb, declared himself emperor in 1658 and strictly confined Shah Jahan in a fort at Agra. Tended by Jahanara, his eldest daughter. Shah Jahan was confined to the fort for eight years. He died an unhappy man in 1666 CE. He was buried next to his wife in the Taj Mahal.

 

History Reveals

The Mughals followed the custom of coparcenary inheritance i.e., a division of the inheritance amongst all the sons. It was in contrast to the rule of primogeniture where the eldest son inherited his father's estate.

 

 

 

AURANGZEB

 

Aurangzeb was Shah Jahan's third son and he seized the throne and had all his brothers executed after the succession struggle. However, he was the last great Mughal Emperor.

Aurangzeb read and wrote in Arabic, Persian, and Turkic. He was also trained in the art of calligraphy. He was a devout Sunni Muslim. He led a very much disciplined life according to Islamic laws. He dressed and ate very simply. He kept fasts and slept on the ground. He prayed five times a day and disliked music and dancing as these are forbidden in Islam. He felt that the foremost duty of a Muslim Emperor was to promote Islam and establish Islamic supremacy in his empire.

 

History Reveals

Aurangzeb did not use the state money for personal expenses and stitched caps and made copies of the Quran to earn money for personal expenses.

 

He was intolerant towards all other religions. He imposed the hated jaziya tax and the pilgrim tax again. Also Hindu traders had to pay commodities tax while the Muslim traders were exempted from the tax. He excluded Hindus from public office and destroyed their schools and temples. In fact, he destroyed the temples and the idols were carried to Agra and buried under the steps of the mosque in order to be continually trodden upon. He ordered the enslavement of Christian Missionaries.

 

His religious intolerance led to many revolts. The Jats revolted and established an independent kingdom at Bharatpur. The Sikhs rebelled against conversion and Aurangzeb killed Guru Tegh Bahadur and fought against Guru Govind Singh. He also attacked Rajput kingdoms of Mewar and Marwar and the Ahoms of Assam. The Marathas rebelled under the leadership of Shivaji. These revolts had an adverse effect on the economy, peace and military strength of the Mughal Empire.

 

He considered building monuments as a wasteful expense. He built religious monuments like the Idgah in Mathura, the Pearl Mosque inside the Red Fort and Badshahi Mosque at Lahore which is the 5th largest mosque in the world to this day.

 

Throughout his reign, he expanded the empire in all directions. His expansionist policy had both political and religious motives. His conquests expanded the Mughal Empire to its greatest size. In the initial years of his reign/ he annexed many kingdoms in the north.

 

He then turned southwards and annexed the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda. His battle with the Marathas continued and he stayed in the Deccan for many years. He was unable to return to Delhi and died in Ahmednagar in 1707. Before he died, he realized his errors and wrote about them to his son. He left behind a crumbling empire/ a bankrupt government and inefficient administration. His ruthlessness and intolerance contributed to the weakening of the once great empire.

 

 

Map no. 4.4 Mugal Empire During Aurangzeb rule

Badshahi Mosque

 

DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

 

After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire began to disintegrate. A combination of many reasons brought about its decline.

 

·   The economy was drained of its wealth first by Shah Jahan in constructing buildings and then by Aurangzeb in fighting wars.

·   It was difficult to control such a vast empire.

·   The successors of Aurangzeb were weak and were controlled by the greedy and corrupt nobles.

·   The Marathas, Rajputs and Sikhs began to assert their independence.

·   Nadir Shah's invasion in 1739 ruined the Mughal Empire.

 

LIFE UNDER THE MUGHALS

 

The Mughal rulers fought many wars to consolidate and expand their empire. Once they had established their supremacy, many Indian rulers joined them. As we have already learnt, this was especially true of the Rajputs, many of who entered into matrimonial alliances with the Mughals. Thus when Jamal Khan Mewati, who was one of the great zamindars of India, submitted to Humayun, he married one of his beautiful daughters himself and married his younger sister to Bairam Khan. In course of time, Akbar expanded and elaborated this policy. Moreover, the Rajputs were treated with respect and they were allowed to enjoy considerable autonomy in their own lands or watan jagirs their cooperation gave security and permanence to the Mughal Rule.

 

The Reigns of the Great Mughal Emperors
Emperor	Reign
Babur	1526-1530
Humayun	1530-1540,1555-1556
Akbar	1556-1605
Jahangir	1605-1627
Shah Jahan	1627-1658
Aurangzeb	1658-1707

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

India under the Mughals was a rich and flourishing land. They introduced various reforms in all branches of administration?central, provincial, military, revenue and judicial.

 

ADMINISTRATION

 

The Emperor was the supreme leader and was regarded as God's representative on earth. He headed the central administration and exercised absolute authority. He was the chief commander of the armed forces and the supreme judge. He was assisted by the wazir (prime minister), qazi (chief judge), and mirbakshi who was in charge of military and maintained records of the mansabdars. The emperor regularly met the officials and solved the problems of people. The vast empire was divided into 15 provinces called subas each looked after by a subedar who was appointed by the emperor. The nobles lived a life of luxury.

 

MILITARY

 

 

Akbar paid great attention to the organisation and discipline of the armed forces. He introduced the mansabdari system. A mansab was a rank or position. Mansabdars held dual ranks-zat and sawar, the former indicated the status of the officer and also determined the personal pay. The latter denoted the contingent they were expected to maintain. The mansabdars were nobles who received salaries not in cash but in the form of jagirs or mansabs. The mansabdar collected revenue from the jagir which was his salary. Each mansabdar had to deliver service to the state. Each mansabdar had to maintain cavalary according to his rank. They had to supply troops to the Emperor during times of war even though the emperor also maintained a standing army. The emperor himself looked into the appointment, promotion or dismissal of the mansabdars. Also, the mansabdari was not hereditary. The system worked well but it was not without defects. The soldiers were loyal to the mansabdar rather than to the Emperor. Also, sometimes the mansabdars cheated on the Emperor and tried to assert their independence.

 

REVENUE SYSTEM

 

Land and trade were the sources of revenue. Akbar's finance minister was Raja Todarmal. Initially, he introduced a system of revenue collection known as Todarmal's Bandobast. According to this, the revenue was fixed according to the fertility of the land. In 1580, he brought in a new system of revenue collection know as dahshal system. Under the system, he took a careful survey of crop yields and prices cultivated for a period of 10 years. The average produce of different crops as well as the average prices prevailing over the last ten years was calculated and one-third share of the average produce was paid to the state. Tax was assessed on every landholder including the nobles. However, this system was in practice where the land could be measured and accounts kept. This system was not applicable in Gujarat and Bengal. The Mughal officials took care of the farmer's needs. In times of drought, loans were granted to the farmers and revenue was reduced. The prices of all cereals were fixed according to the local prices.

 

ECONOMY

 

Agriculture was the backbone of the economy, though trade and industries also contributed to it. New areas were brought under cultivation. The major crops grown were cereals, oilseeds, sugarcane, indigo, betel and cash crops.

Industries also flourished. Some important industries were dye, shawl and carpet weaving, silk, cotton and ship building. Trade was encouraged and to facilitate it, a standard currency in the form of gold, silver and copper coins was introduced.

 

History Reveals

Babur introduced many fruits from central Asia. During the reign of Jahangir, the Portuguese introduced the cultivation of tobacco and potatoes.

 

 

The Silver issued during Akbar?s reign

Around the World

 

Vasco da Gama

 

The first European to sail around the Cape of Good Hope and reach India was Vasco da Gama. He sailed from Portugal in July,1497. After sailing around the tip of Africa, he reached Mozambique. From here, he was helped by a sailor who knew the route to India. In May 1498, he reached the trading port of Calicut in India. It was a busy trading center. Da Gama bought enough spices and goods to fill his ships and then returned to Portugal in 1499. By the 16th century, the Portuguese controlled the trade between Europe and India.