Current Affairs Teaching

  Socialization Process  

• Socialization is the process by which one learns the ways of a society or social group so that one can function within it. Socialization includes both the learning and internalizing of appropriate patterns, values, and feelings. The child ideally not only knows what is expected of him and behaves accordingly; he also feels that this is the proper way for him to think and behave. It also means learning the ways of a group such as an immigrant becomes socialized into the life of his new country; a recruit into the life of the Army; a new sales executive into the patterns of his company and his job.

 

•  The entry of a new member into a family, or into any unit, changes the group. It is not just the old group with one added person; it is a new group with new relationships and a new organization.

 

• From the point of view of socialization, the child is not viewed primarily as a possessor of drives and needs which require satisfaction, but rather as someone who is capable of learning the patterns, symbols, expectations, and feelings of the world surrounding him.

  Perspectives of Society   From the perspective of society, the function of socialization is to transmit the culture and motivation to participate in established social relationships in society. There is the perspective of norms and values. Norms are rules specifying what behaviors are acceptable in society. For example, there are norms about how to speak. How you address your grandfather is probably different from how you talk with your spouse, and this is also different to how you speak to your boss, or your children. Your choice of words, your tone, and your body language are all norm-based. Social norms express preferences and value judgments. They govern the specifications of a role and the standards by which behavior is judged. Therefore, social norms are primarily evaluative, not descriptive. Values concentrate on different areas: some may be general life values, but there are family values, cultural values, and work values too. And as people have values, so do organizations. Today, nearly everybody who has worked for a company is acquainted with the concept of company values.   A second perspective is that of status and role. A status is a position in the social structure, and a role is the expected behavior of someone who holds a given status. We can cooperate with others because we know the rights and obligations associated with each status. The taxi driver has the right to ask for your fare and the obligation to drive you to your destination; the doctor has the right to ask about your symptoms and an more...

Constructs and Critical Perspectives on Development   Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget showed that intelligence is the result of a natural sequence of stages and it develops as a result of the changing interaction of a child and its environment. He devised a model describing how humans go about making sense of their world by gathering and organizing information. According to Piaget development is a spontaneous process tied to embryogenesis whereas learning is provoked by external situations. Embryogenesis concerns the development of the body, as well as. The development of the nervous system and the development of mental functions. Learning presents the opposite case. In general, learning is provoked by situations-provoked by a psychological experimenter, or by a teacher, with respect to a didactic point, or by an external situation. It is provoked in general, as opposed to spontaneous. Cognitive development is much more than the addition of new facts and ideas to an existing store of information. According to Piaget, our thinking processes change radically, though slowly from birth to maturity because we constantly strive to make sense of the world. Piaget identifies four factors namely biological maturation, activity, social experiences, and equilibration that interact to influence thinking.  

• Maturation: Maturation is the unfolding of the biological changes that are genetically programmed. Parents and teachers have little influence on this aspect of cognitive development except to be certain that children get the nourishment and care they need to be healthy.

 

• Activity: With maturation comes the increasing ability to act on the environment and learn from it. For example, when a young child?s coordination is reasonably developed, the child may discover principles about balance by experimenting with a sea saw. Thus, the child acts on the environment as it explores, tests, observes, and eventually organizes information.

 

• Social transmission: The process of development also involves interacting with the people around us. According to Piaget, our cognitive development is influenced by social transmission, or learning from others. The amount people can learn from social transmission varies according to their stage of cognitive development.

 

• Equilibration: The actual changes in thinking take place through the process of equilibration- the act of searching for a balance. Briefly the process of equilibration works like this:

  If we apply a particular scheme to an event or situation and the scheme works, then equilibrium exists. If the scheme does not produce a satisfying result, then disequilibrium exists and we become uncomfortable. This motivates us to keep searching for a solution through assimilation and accommodation, and thus our thinking changes and moves ahead. The concepts assimilation, and accommodation are explained below.   Invariant Functions of Thinking   According to Piaget, all species inherit two invariant functions.

• Organization
•  Adaptation

  Organization: We are born with a propensity to organize our thinking processes into psychological structures. These structures more...

Child Growth and Development Concepts, Principles and Influences     INTRODUCTION   Humans are not static beings. During their lives, they change in size, appearance and psychological makeup. However, the way they change differs from individual to individual. But the fundamental patterns of growth and development remain more or less the same and take place in an orderly way. Each individual, with his unique heredity and environment determines the way he traverses the broad path of his life at his rate of progress. The knowledge of the pattern of human development helps teachers know what to expect of children. It also helps them to know approximately at what age behavioral changes take place, and when these patterns are generally replaced by more mature patterns. This is significant since, if too much is expected of children, they develop a feeling of inadequacy. On the other hand if too little is expected of them, they do not have an incentive to realize their potential.   Before understanding child development, it is imperative to understand the term 'growth'. The terms growth and development are often used interchangeably. But they are conceptually different and complement each other. Human growth deals with just the physical aspects of development whereas human development includes not only human growth but also takes into consideration the psycho-social aspects of development.   GROWTH Growth is an increase in the size of the body as a whole or the size attained by different parts of the body by multiplication of cells during the period starting from fertilization to physical maturity. It is a fundamental characteristic of all living organisms. The physical size is measured in terms of centimeters and kilograms or metabolic balance that is retention of hydrogen and calcium in the body.   Stages of Growth.   The stages or phases of growth have been classified differently by different researchers.   1. Prenatal Period: The prenatal period comprises, on the average, about 9 calendar months or 40 weeks. A fertilized   egg of a multi-cellular animal is transformed into an embryo by cell division, growth and differentiation. This formation into the embryo is called prenatal growth. In the prenatal period (before birth) the embryo is formed with rudiments of all organs and systems. Prenatal growth has three distinct stages:

•   The fertilized ovum (egg) (first 2 weeks)
•   The embryo (from 2 to 8 weeks) and the
•   The fetus (from 2 to 10 lunar months)

  The human ovum during the first part of this period it is like fi homogeneous mass. During the embryonic stage, though the rate of growth is slow, yet the differentiation process to form various regions which later on give rise to different parts like head, arm, leg, etc. begins. By the eighth week the more...

  Problems of Teaching Environmental Studies   As we enter a new century and millennium, environmental educators must come up with new knowledge and techniques that address the demand of a constantly evolving social and technological landscape while ensuring that environmental education stays relevant to the needs and interests of the community.   9.1 Problems in EVS Teaching Environmental education must teach about science itself and about the use of scientific method. Effective and meaningful environmental education is a challenge that must be taken seriously if we and future generations are to enjoy the benefits of our natural heritage. While teaching environmental education in school, a teacher faces multitudes of problems. Some of the problems are as follow   9.1.1 Problems Due to Complexities of Behaviour In this category, complexities depend upon the child's age, gender and ability. Spark in 1952 studied about the problems of primary classes and found these major problems in students like carelessness in school work, interrupting while teaching etc. All these activities affect the teaching learning process. Causes of problematic behaviour may include physical defects like children with physical deformities, such as blind, deaf, fat, thin, tall, short and handicapped,' heredity causes such as inherited factors, diseases, weakness etc and causes related to family and environment such as poverty, domestic quarrels neglects etc. Some causes of problematic behaviour are explained in detail   Individual Differences of Learners A class consists of children of different age, level of intelligence, different aptitudes and interests. Moreover, they come from different economic background. Due to these factors, teaching of environmental science becomes a major challenge for the teacher. The materials of environmental education need to present information and ideas in a way that is relevant to learners.   Problem Related to Environmental Education Syllabus The subject matter of environmental studies is complex and difficult for learners at primary level. How to make the subject matter easily comprehensible? It is a major challenge while teaching small children.     Lack of Resources in Schools Many schools in India do not have proper resources which are required while teaching environmental education. Due to this problem, teachers find it difficult to present appropriate teaching experience to learners.        1.   Difficulty in Making Use of Public Resources Environmental studies teaching is not limited to classroom teaching or activity, but learners are educated by wide use of public resources such as museum or zoo or power house etc. The immense value of local-specific environment education material extends beyond language to also address content, context, concepts, issue and examples.        2.   Environment is Closely Related to Science This requires practical work and a lab to carry on experiments. Lack of these facilities in schools make learning of environmental studies also a difficult one.      3.   Lack of Experienced Teacher It is another problem which is also due to lack of resources and support from institutional management and other crucial agencies which results in more...

  Teaching Aids/Materials   Teaching aids are materials that the classroom teacher uses to help students understand the concepts she-introduces during her lesson. These teaching aids can take numerous forms.   8.1 Teaching Aids : Meaning and Definition In the teaching of EVS at primary level, teaching materials serve as a means to help a teacher to introduce or explain a topic effectively. A well planned and specific teaching is possible with the help of appropriate teaching material. Teaching materials make the lesson interesting and easy to understand. Teacher can break the monotony of the class by introducing new and attractive teaching aids. Activity based learning employs a variety of teaching learning materials and focus on student's interaction to learn new concepts. Context specific learning aids enhance the process of teaching. Teaching materials have the potential to affect a student's cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning process.                                                           Teaching aid can be defined as, "A tool used by teachers to help learners improving their reading and other skills, illustrate or reinforce a skill, fact or idea and relieve anxiety, fears or boredom. Since many teaching aids are like games.   8.1.1 Types or Classifications of Teaching Aids The teaching aids can be classified mainly in three types. These are as follow         1.      Audio Aids Audio Aids are those aids which make use of sense of hearing. Some examples are: radio, tape recorders and language laboratory etc.          2.      Visual Aids These types of aids appeal to the learner's visual organs. Some of the visual aids are: chalkboard, soft boards, charts, maps, picture and drawings, flash cards, pictures and drawings, maps, poster etc.         3.      Audio-Visual Aids These aids appeal to both the sense organs hearing and visual organs of the learners. They facilitate in attaining the cognitive, affective and psychomotor objectives of teaching. Some of the prominent audio-visual aids are: T.V, films and computers, slides, film strips, OHP etc.   8.1.2 Aims of Using Teaching Aids in EVS The primary purposes of using teaching aids during class teaching are as follow ·               To explain the properties of the associated objects. ·               To illustrate natural phenomenon like volcano, rain, earthquake etc. ·               To define a thought idea or concept in a better way, e.g. to explain the directions in a map or on a globe. ·               To refresh or reinforce student's learning when it is impossible to create a real atmosphere or situation during the teaching process. ·               It helps a teacher with the lesson plan of a topic and subtopic.   8.1.3 Characteristics of Teaching Aids A good teaching material should be able to ·               make positive transfer of knowledge, possible through the presentation of more...

  Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)   Evaluation plays an enormous role in the teaching-learning process. It helps teachers and learners to improve teaching and learning. CCE method is claimed to bring enormous changes from the traditional method of teaching.   7.1 Meaning and Definitions of Evaluation Evaluation is concerned with the overall development of student's personality pertaining to cognitive, affective and psychomotor objectives. Thus, providing a general impression of a learner's ability and improving teaching learning process.   According to JW Wright, "Evaluation is a new technical term introduced to design a more comprehensive concept of measurement." Evaluation informs an integral part of the whole learning process and is done at regular basis. According to Wikipedia, "Evaluation is a systematic determination of merit, worth and significance of something or someone using criteria against a set of standards." Evaluation can be quantitative as well as qualitative. Evaluation includes measurement, assessment and testing.     7.1.1 Importance of Evaluation Importance of evaluation are given below ·               Evaluation helps the teacher to know whether the teaching methodology adopted was successful or not. It helps the teacher to know how successful students were in learning new skills. ·               Evaluation also helps the students to determine which area of learning require more attention. One of the main purpose of evaluation at the school stage is to help the learners improve their achievement in scholastic areas and to develop life skills and attitudes with reference to the larger context and canvas of life.   7.2 Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation ·               Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) refers to a system of school based evaluation of a student that covers all aspects of a student development. ·               It is a developmental process of student, which emphasises on two fold objectives. ·               These objectives are continuity in evaluation and assessment of broad, based on learning and behaviourial outcomes on the other. ·               The term 'continuous' is meant to emphasise that evaluation of identified aspects of students 'growth and development' is a continuous process rather than an event, built into the total teaching-learning process and spread over the entire span of academic session. ·               It means regularity of assessment, frequency of unit testing, diagnosis of learning gaps, use of corrective measures, retesting and feedback of evidence to teachers and students for their self-evaluation. ·               The second term 'comprehensive' means that the scheme attempts to cover both the scholastic and the co-scholastic aspects of the students' growth and development. ·               Since abilities, attitudes and aptitudes can manifest themselves in forms other than the written word, more...

  Learning Principles in EVS   Learning is acquiring new or modifying and reinforcing, existing knowledge, behaviour, skills, values or preferences and may involve synthesising different types of information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines.   3.1 Learning: Meaning and Definition Progress over time tends to follow learning curves. Learning is not compulsory, it is contextual. It does not happen all at once, but builds upon and is shaped by what we already know. To that end, learning may be viewed as a process, rather than a collection of factual and procedural knowledge. Learning produces changes in the organism and the changes produced are relatively permanent. Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, schooling or training. It may be goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation. Various psychologists gave different definitions of learning, which are as follow According to Woodworth, "The process of acquiring new knowledge and new response is the process of learning". According to JP Guilford, "Learning is any change in behaviour resulting from behaviour". According to Robert Gagne, "A change in human disposition or capability that persists over a period of time and is not simply ascribable to processes of growth".   3.1.1 Characteristics of Learning   Characteristics of learning are given below ·               All children are naturally motivated to learn and are capable of learning. ·               Children learn in a variety of ways-through experience, doing things, experimentation, reading, discussion, asking, listening, thinking and reflecting and expressing oneself by speech or writing both individually and with others. ·               Learning takes place both within school and outside school. Learning is enriched if these two arenas interact with each other. Art and work provide opportunities for holistic learning that is rich in tacit and aesthetic components. ·               Learning must be paced so that it allows learners to engage with concepts and deepen the understanding. At the same time, learning must provide variety and challenge and must be interesting and engaging.   ·               In view of getting a complete picture of the child's learning, assessment should focus on the learner's ability to ·               learn and acquire desired skills related to different subject areas. ·               monitor changes taking place in child's learning, behaviour and progress over a period of time. ·               respond to different situations and opportunities both in and out of school. ·               apply what is learnt in a variety of circumstances and situations, work independently, collaboratively and harmoniously. ·               analyse and evaluate.   ·               be aware of social and more...

  Concept and Scope of Environmental Studies   Environmental studies is the science which studies the interaction between man and the environment, emphasising the links between different subjects related to this issue,   1.1 Meaning and Definitions of Environment The word Environment is derived from the French word Environ which means surrounding. Our surrounding includes biotic factors like human beings, plants, animals, microbes etc and abiotic factors such as light air, water, soil etc. In words of Kalavathy, "Environment is a-complex of many variables, which surrounds man as well as the living organisms. Environment includes water, air, land and the interrelationships which exist among and between water, air, land and human beings and other living creatures such as plants, animals and microorganisms."   Generally, environment consists of an inseparable whole system constituted by physical, chemical, biological, social and cultural elements, which are interlinked individually and collectively in uncountable ways.   In words of Douglas and Holland, "Environment is aggregate of all the external force, influences and the condition which affect the life, nature, behaviour, the growth, development and maturity of living organism."   1.1.1 Concept of EVS ·               Environmental studies is important to be studied at primary level, as it gives information about our nature and also the men and environment relationship, ·               It creates awareness among people as how to protect and conserve our environment which is very important for our survival. ·               Every organism is surrounded by materials and forces that constitute its environment. It is the environment from where every organism must derive its requirement. The environment creates the favourable conditions for the existence and development of living organisms. ·               The degradation of the environment has become a serious problem for the existence of human beings. Pollution of soil, water and air causes harm to living organisms as well as loss of valuable natural resources. Environmental studies involves educating the people for preserving the quality of environment. ·               Environmental studies makes students able to understand about the various phenomena and the changes occur in the environment. It also enables them how to act in a specific situation in appropriate and wise manner. ·               Thus, to understand the complexity of the environment and to create problem-solving capability and for the development of analytical thinking among students, it is crucial to introduce this subject at school level.   1.1.2 Scope of Environmental Studies   Environmental studies is of multi-disciplinary nature, it is concerned with geographical feature of area, living beings of the area, natural resource and conservation of the resources, waste management, biodiversity conservation, renewable energy generation, sanitation and health. Because of relation with so many subjects and domain environmental studies is considered to have great scope. Environmental science can be applied in more...

            Environmental Studies and Environmental Education   Environmental studies explain about the surrounding environment like social and physical environments which affect all the spheres of human life. It tells how close we are to our immediate environment, how do we interact with each other and how do we influence from and affect it Environmental Education (EE) is the teaching of individuals and communities, in transitioning to a society that is knowledgeable of the environment and its associated problems, aware of the solutions to these problems and motivated to solve them.   2.1 Environmental Studies   Environmental Studies is a multidisciplinary academic field which systematically studies human interaction with the environment in the interests of solving complex problems. Environmental studies brings together the principles of sciences, commerce, economics and social sciences so as the solve contemporary environment, problems. It is broad field of study that includes the natural environment, the built environment, and the sets of relationships between them.   2.1.1 Aims and Objectives of Environmental Studies (EVS) at Primary Level The general objectives of EVS at primary level are given below. ·         To develop ideal citizenship in children and to give comprehensive knowledge of integrated curriculum of history, geography and civics. ·         To develop understanding of the contemporary problems in children. ·         To give training to children to change according to their social environment. ·         To introduce children to democratic norms and to give training to children for good thought and meditation. ·         To aware children about their social environment. ·         To develop the feeling of national and international integration and to give knowledge about their rights and duties. ·         To encourage children to be a conscious member of their family, town, village and country. ·         To develop the feeling of nationalism in children and to motivate children to be an ideal citizen and have a good character in life.   2.2 Environmental Education   Environmental Education (EE) refers to organise efforts to teach how natural environments function and particularly, how human beings can manage behaviour and ecosystems to live sustainably. It is a multi-disciplinary field integrating disciplines such as biology, chemistry, physics, ecology, Earth science, atmospheric science, mathematics and geography. The term often implies education within the school system from primary to post-secondary. ·            Environmental education is a process aimed at developing a world population that is aware and concerned about the environment and its associated problems and which has the knowledge, attitudes, commitments and skills to work individually and collectively towards the solution of current problems and for prevention of new ones. more...

  Relation between Social Science and Other Subjects   Social science studies social life as a whole. But for the understanding of social life as a "whole social science requires the help of other subjects which studies a particular aspect of society.   4.1 Social Science: Meaning and Definitions Social Science is a generic term covering the scientific study of man. It is a discipline or branch of science that deals with the socle-cultural aspects of human behaviour. The social sciences generally include cultural anthropology, economics, political science, history, geography, sociology, criminology and social psychology which play an important role in human life. Social science is defined as any scholastic discipline or scientific field that investigates human society.   The important definitions are as follow According to James High, "Social Sciences are those bodies of learning and study which recognise the simultaneous and mutual action of physical and no-physical stimuli which produce social relation." According to Charles Beard, "Social Sciences are a body of knowledge and thought pertaining to human affairs as distinguished from sticks, stones, stars and physical objects." Bining and Bining defines Social Science as "The subject that relates to the origin, organisation and development of human society, especially to man in his association with other men."   4.1.1 Nature of Social Science The nature of this discipline is discussed below ·               Social sciences are those aspects of knowledge which have direct bearing on man's activities in different socio-cultural fields. ·               Social sciences are advance level studies of human society; and they are generally taught at higher education level. ·               It seeks to find out truths about human relationships which ultimately contribute to the social utility and advancement of knowledge. ·               It is a unique combination of various disciplines. ·               It is a study of human relationships. ·               It is a study of man's development through ages. ·               It is a realistic course of study. ·               It forms an important part of the core- curriculum. ·               It includes commitment to action. ·               It aims at preparing the learner for wholesome social living.    4.1.2 Position of Social Science in Present School Curriculum ·               In India, at the primary school level (i.e. class I-V), social sciences are taught to the learners as the part of environmental studies or environmental sciences curriculum.   ·               At the upper primary school level (i.e. class VI-VIII) and secondary school level (i.e. Class IX and X), social sciences are taught to the learners as more...