REPRODUCTIONREPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the process by which all living organism give rise to new organisms similar to themselves. It is essential for the survival of the species since all the living beings have a similar life span. Organism reproduces by two modes asexual and sexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent because the offspring are all clones. The main process of asexual reproduction is mitosis. This type of reproduction is common among same single cell organisms for example, amoeba, etc. Many plants also reproduce asexually.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is a biological process that creates a new organism by combining the genetic material of two organisms in a process that starts with meiosis, a specialized type of cell division.
Difference between asexual and sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction
1.
It occurs only in invertebrates and lower chordates.
NUTRITION, HEALTH AND DISEASESNUTRITION
Nutrition is the process of intake and utilisation of nutrients/ food, by an organisms to get energy which is further used in various life processes. The substance that is needed to keep them living is called nutrient.
Nutrients are organic and inorganic substances which the organism obtains from its surroundings and uses it as a source of energy or for biosynthesis of its body constituents.
Organic nutrients - Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats Inorganic nutrients - Water, Carbon dioxide, Minerals (Iron, copper, zinc, etc.)
NUTRITION IN PLANTS
Various organisms live in different environmental conditions and they have different methods of obtaining nutrients from the environment. The method of obtaining food by the organism is called mode of nutrition. Depending on the mode of nutrition, all organisms can be classified into two major groups - Autotrophic and Heterotrophic.
Nutrition in Plants
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Autotrophic
Heterotrophic
Organisms which can make their own organic food from inorganic raw materials (carbon dioxide and water) and remain independent of obtaining external source of organic compound are called Autotrophs. All green plants are autotrophs.
Plants are generally autotrophic but there some plants which are unable to manufacture their food, due to lack of chlorophyll like parasitic plants saprophytic and insectivorous plants or symbionts
FOOD PRODUCTIONFOOD PRODUCTIONAll living organisms require food for survival. Food is the basic need for existence of life on earth. Our country is over-populated and supports around one billion people. Therefore, in order to feed such a large population, we need to produce several million tons of grains every year along with higher requirement of milk, eggs and meat. Therefore, we need to increase production of both plant and animal products. The only possibility is to increase production efficiency of both plants and animals. We can increase the production by the development and use of improved varieties with high yield and better agricultural practices.
Structure of Economy and Human Resource in IndiaIntroduction
The word ?Economies? has originated from the Greek word 'Oikonomikos'; Oikos (Home)+Nomos (Management) together means 'Home Management'. Economics is a broad term referring to the scientific study of human action, particularly as it relates to human choice and the utilization of scarce resources. It includes the theories, principles, and models that deal with how the market process works. The world 'Economy' refers to an entire network of producers, distributors, and consumers of goods and services in a local, regional, or national community.
Economic Growth & Development
Increase in per capita real income in a country over a long period of time is the 'economic growth.' Economic development is defined as sustained increase in production (GDP or GNP) at 5 to 7 percent rate as well as change in the structure of the economy and also occupational structure of the economy. It should be accompanied with reduction of poverty, inequality and unemployment.
According to Kindleberger, economic growth means increase in production only while economic development is a wider concept and it means improvement in technology employed in production, distribution system and institutional system etc.
But economic development is not possible without economic growth. Underdeveloped economies, with limited technological and economic resources, cannot eliminate poverty, unemployment and inequality without increase income. Expansion of industries, financial institutions, public utilities etc. is possible only with expansion of country's income.
Indian Economy
Salient Features of Indian Economy
The salient features of Indian Economy include the followings:
(1) Mixed Economy
India is a mixed economy. In a mixed economy, public sector (government-owned) business enterprises exist alongside the private sector to achieve a welfare state with socialistic pattern of society. Ever since independence, India's economic development has been guided by the twin objectives of developing:(a) a rapidly and technologically progressive economy by democratic means; and(b) a social order based on justice, offering equal opportunity to every citizen of the country.(2) Low per Capita GDP
According to imp’s world Economic outlook India’s GDP per capita in 2016 was. $1719. India is 7th. Largest economy of the world. But due to its huge population of more than 1.26 billion, India is ranked 144th in terms of GDP per capita. Among Asian countries, India is ranked 34th. India’s per-capita GDP is only 16.66% of the world’s average per capita GDP. It is 61.56 times lower than the top ranked Luxembourg and 8.1 time greater than the lowest ranked South Sudan.
On the basis of PPP, India’s GDP per capita is$6162.
Average GDP per capita of world in terms of PPP is $16329. India is ranked 126th in more...
Planning, Unemployment and Poverty in IndiaIntroduction
Economic planning is the making of major economic decisions what and how much is to be produced, how, when and where it is to be produced, and to whom it is to be allocated by the comprehensive survey of the economic system as whole. (H.D. Dickinson)
Planning in India
Planning in India starts in 1930s. Even before independence.
Subhash Chandra Bose as the President of Indian National Congress in 1938 set up a National Planning committee, Jawaharlal Nehru was appointed as its chairman. The colonial government had established a planning board that lasted from 1944 to 1946. Before independence private industrialists and economists published three development plans in 1944. India's leaders adopted the principle of formal economic planning soon after independence as an effective way to intervene in the economy of faster growth and social justice.
Four decades of planning show that India's economy, a mix of public and private enterprise, is too large and diverse to be wholly predictable or responsive to directions of the planning authorities.
Important Dates
·1934: M. Visvesvaryya, in his book 'Planned Economy of India', advocates the necessity of planning in the country much before Independence.
·1944: Bombay Plan, published in January 1944, prepared by eight leading industrialist of Bombay.
·Gandhian Plan put forward by S.N. Agrawal (1944).
·1944: Planning Development Council was set up under the chairmanship of A. Dalal.
·Peoples Plan drafted by M.N. Roy (1945).
·1946: Interim Government sets up the Planning Advisory Board.
·1947: Economic Programme Committee was set up under the chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru.
·1950: Planning Commission was set up.
·2015: Formation of NITI Aayog.
Planning Commission
The Planning Commission was established in 1950, as a result of an executive order. Planning Commission was an extra constitutional and non-statutory body. The Commission was independent of the Cabinet. A staff drafts plans under the guidance of the Commission; the draft plans are presented for approval to the National Development Council, which consisted of members of the Planning Commission, the Chief Ministers of the States and Administrators of UTs and All Union Ministers. The Council could make changes in the draft plan. After Council's approval, the draft was presented to the Cabinet and subsequently to Parliament, whose approval made the plan an operating document for Central and State governments.
Jawaharlal Nehru was the first more...
Fiscal and Monetary Policy Introduction
Fiscal Policy deals with the taxation and expenditure decisions of the government covered in the annual budget.
Monetary Policy deals with the supply of money in the economy and the rate of interest. In India, the government deals with fiscal policy, while the Central bank (RBI) is responsible for monetary policy.
Fiscal policy
Fiscal policy or budgetary policy refers to the use by the government Finance Ministry of the various instruments such as taxation, expenditure and borrowing in order to achieve the objectives of balanced economic development, full employment and to establish a welfare state. In the context of economic liberalization, the major themes of the fiscal policy comprises:
(1) a systematic effort to simplify tax structure and tax laws
(2) a deliberate move to a regime of reasonable direct tax rates and better administration and enforcement.
The budget or the annual financial statement of the government gives expression to its fiscal policy. Under Article 112 of the Indian Constitution, the President shall cause to be laid, before both the Houses of Parliament a financial statement at the commencement of every financial year. The General Budget is presented in Lok Sabha by the Minister of Finance.
Union budget or Annual financial statement is a statement of estimated receipts and expenditures of the Government of India. It has to be placed before Parliament for every financial year, i.e. April 1 to March 31 & presented at 11 a.m. on the First day of February. The decision to advance the date of the general budget from the last working day of February to the first working day of February was taken in 2017, to ensure that the proposals take effect from 1st April. The practice of presenting a separate Railway Budget as also discontinued from 2017.The annual financial statement gives the following details: (a) An outline of the results of the last financial year compared with the previous budget estimates. (b) Government forecasts of receipts and payments for the next year. (c) Proposed changes in taxes and expenditure allocations. For instance, the Government can change the proportion of revenue collected from direct taxes and indirect taxes or it might increase public expenditure on defence and decrease that of social services, the budget shows the receipts and payments of the Government under three heads:(i) Consolidated fundIt consists of all revenues and loans received by the government. Article 114(3) of the more...
Money Supply and Indian Financial SystemIntroductionA well-established financial system plays very important role in economic development of any country. A financial system consists of financial institutions, financial markets, financial instruments and financial services. This system provides a framework by which savings and surplus funds are mobilized in a productive manner. A financial system serves as a link between savers and investors. It promotes the capital formation by bringing together supply of savings and demand for funds.This system provides detailed information about the players in the market such as individuals, corporate houses government agencies etc. It also provides a mechanism for controlling risks involved in managing savings and allocating funds. It covers the whole gamut of demand for and supply of funds for productive purposes. The financial system promotes economic development through mobilising savings and channelising these to investment avenues. The Indian financial system consists of both short term and long term finances. The organisation of the financial system comprises of three inter-related components, namely, financial intermediaries, financial markets and financial assets/instruments (securities).MONEY MARKETMoney markets are those markets where borrowing and lending of short term funds (maturity 1 day to 1 year) takes place. Due to short maturity, the instruments of money market are liquid and can be converted to cash easily. Thus the money markets are able to address the need of the short term surplus fund of the lenders and short term borrowing requirements of the borrowers. The interest rates get determined in the money markets.Therefore the money markets work as a mechanism whereby borrowers manage to obtain short term loan funds on the one hand, and lenders succeed in getting credit worthy borrowers for their money on the other. In this way, any institution or person who is willing to provide short-period monetary debt becomes a part of the money market.Under Indian money market, the Reserve Bank of India occupies the central position because it regulates and controls the credit supply of the country.The Indian money market is divided into two sectors:1. The Unorganised sector.2. The Organised sector.Unorganised SectorThe Unorganised sector comprises of the unregulated non-bank financial intermediaries, indigenous bankers, and moneylenders.Organised SectorThe organised sector includes the State Bank of India andIts associated banks, 19 nationalised banks. Regional Rural Banks, Co-operative Banks, Non-governmental sectors and other banks.Organised sector includes Reserve Bank of India, Private Banks, public sector banks, developmental banks and other non-banking financial companies (NBFCs) such as Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC), Unit Trust of India (UTI), the International Finance Corporation, more...
Business Modules & Concept in India
Introduction
Business is a concept to perform some work is an organized way for profit. It starts with a process of thinking and acting like an entrepreneur and acquiring both the theoretical and practical expertise to setup and run a company. In this chapter, different business anti ties and functioning are discusses.
Business Entities
Sole Proprietorship
Ii is an unincorporated business with one owner who pays personal income tax on profits from the business.
Partnership
A type of business organisation in which two or more individual?s pool money, skills, & other resources, & share profit & loss in accordance with terms of the partnership agreement.
Limited Liability Partnership (LLP)
Ii is a partnership in which some or all partners have limited liabilities.
Hindu Undivided Family (HUF)
Ii is an extended family arrangement prevalent throughout the Indian subcontinent consisting of many generations living in the same household, all bound by the common relationship. A HUP is a legal term related to the Hindu Marriage Act. The female members are also given the right of share to the property in HUF.
Cooperative
It is a firm owned, controlled, & operated by a group of users for their own benefit. Each member contributes equity capital & shares in the control of the firm on the basis of one-member, one-vote principle.
Dormant Company
The Companies Act 2013 (section 455) introduces a concept of d dormant company within its ambit. The Dormant Company a company formed & registered under this act for a future project or to hold an asset or intellectual property & has no significant accounting transaction, such a company or an inactive company may make an application to the registrar in such manner as may be prescribed for obtaining the status of a Dormant company.
Family Owned Business
It is a kind of business in which two or more family members are involved & the majority of ownership or control lies within the family.
Private Limited Company
A type of company that offers limited liability, or legal protection for its shareholders but places certain restrictions on its ownership.
Small Company
It is a company that satisfies either of the following conditions:
(i) Paid-up share capital which does not exceed 50 lakh rupees or such higher amount as may be prescribed which shall not be more than 5 crore rupees.
OR
(ii) Turnover of which as per its last profit & loss account does not exceed 2 crore rupees or such higher amount as may be prescribed which shall not be more than 20 crore rupees.
Public Limited Company
A company whose securities are traded on a stock exchange & can be bought & sold by anyone. Its formation, working & its winding up, in fact, all its activities are strictly governed by laws, rules & regulations.
Public Sector Unit (PSU)
The government owned corporations are termed as more...
Industries and InfrastructureIntroduction
Growth of industries has been always focus area of the government. The reason behind this is die important role played by the industries in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of India. The government, therefore, has many schemes and incentives to facilitate growth and development of industries. It has been generally noticed that most of the developing countries gradually move from the predominance of agriculture towards that of industries in economy as they progress on the path of economic development.
Indian economy, however portrays a contradictory trend. Here, the economic has by passed industries growth to rapid growth of services sector. The rapid growth of services may be largely attributed to reform and liberalisation of the 1990s. Indian industries contribute 18% of India's GDP and employ about 19% of work force. Major industries of our country are textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, cement, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, etc.
STATUS OF INDIAN INDUSTRIES
Before Independence
Pre-British India was a major manufacturing country. India in 1750 supplied nearly a quarter of world production of manufactured goods, thus attracted traders from different parts of Asia. Hundred years later, the situation turned altogether different. Industries in India were in disarray.
India witnessed a phase of rapid de-industrialisation under the colonial rule. Destruction of traditional industries was not ac-companied with foundation of modern industries.
It was only in the middle of the 19th century the modern industries began to be established in India. Even when it started the process was painfully slow.
The British investors built a railway system in the second half of 19th century. Besides the railways the large scale industries were confined to the plantations and a few consumer goods industries like textiles. There was limited development of mining like coal and iron. The ownership of these industries except textile was predominantly European and mostly British.
There was almost complete absence of heavy or capital goods industries. The first steel in India was produced only in 1913.
Thus India lacked such basic industries as steel, metallurgy, machine, chemical and oil. India also lagged behind in the development of electric power.
Industrial Growth after Independence
Prior to independence the ownership or control of much of the large private industries were in the hands of managing agencies, which grew under the British system and had access to London money markets. Thus the owners of these managing agencies controlled a major portion of the economy, prior to independence.
But things changed after independence. Parliament enacted a legislation to curb the powers of managing agencies. By 1971 the government had banned the managing agencies.
The Industrial Policy Resolution, 1948, clearly put forward the goal of the Government's policy with respect to industrialization. This was the first economic policy of our country. It declared that India would be a mixed economy.
Following are the major highlights of this more...
AgricultureIntroduction
Agriculture has always been one of the most important sectors of Indian economy, be it pre- independence or post- independence periods. This is further proved by the large number of Indians whose livelihood depends on griculture. Indian agriculture has a fairly successful history. It is now first in the world in the production of milk, pulses, jute and many fruits; second in rice, wheat, susarcane, cotton, etc. and a leading producer of spices, plantation crop, livestock, fishes and poultry.
Features of Indian Agriculture
·Agriculture is the primary occupation in India. Over 58.7% rural households depend on agriculture as their principal means of livelihood. In India, 75% of below the poverty line (BPL) population lives in rural areas, and is directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture.
·Agriculture contributes to more than 17.4% (2016) of GDP, as compared to 18.3% in 2013-14. In developed countries, like the UK and USA, the share of agriculture in GDP is only around 2%.
·India accounts for 7.68 % of total global agricultural output. India is the second largest producer of agricultural products in the world.
·Agriculture contributes to around 10% of the total value of India?s commodity exports. Thirteen major commodities including tea, coffee, tobacco, cashew, spices, raw cotton and sugar are the primary agricultural exports in India.
Almost 30% of tea and 50% of coffee and jute produced in the country are exported. In addition to this, credit must be given to export of manufactured goods using agricultural raw materials, which further accounts for another 15% of India?s exports.
·Indian agriculture has been able to improve its per capita net availability of food-grains to 491.2 grams (2016) from 395 grams in 1950s.
·Indian agriculture is still largely dependent on the uncertainties of monsoon for its irrigational requirements.
However, India?s water resources, if fully harnessed, can irrigate more than 50% of our cultivated area.
Productivity
·Kharif 2015-16 also experienced poor monsoon with rainfall being 14% less than LPA. As a results the 1st advanced estimate for 2015-16 (Kharif) are lower than the estimates for 2014-15. A comparative position of production of Food grains, Oilseeds, Sugarcane and Cotton during Kharif 2015-16 vis-a-vis Kharif 2014-15 is given below:
Fiscal policy
Fiscal policy or budgetary policy refers to the use by the government Finance Ministry of the various instruments such as taxation, expenditure and borrowing in order to achieve the objectives of balanced economic development, full employment and to establish a welfare state. In the context of economic liberalization, the major themes of the fiscal policy comprises:
(1) a systematic effort to simplify tax structure and tax laws
(2) a deliberate move to a regime of reasonable direct tax rates and better administration and enforcement.
The budget or the annual financial statement of the government gives expression to its fiscal policy. Under Article 112 of the Indian Constitution, the President shall cause to be laid, before both the Houses of Parliament a financial statement at the commencement of every financial year. The General Budget is presented in Lok Sabha by the Minister of Finance.
Union budget or Annual financial statement is a statement of estimated receipts and expenditures of the Government 
Features of Indian Agriculture
