The theory of plate tectonics states that lithosphere consists of several individual segments called plates.
Major Plates on Earth are.
(i) Antarctic plate
(ii) North American and South American
(iii) Pacific plate
(iv) Indian - Australian - New Zealand plate
(v)Africa/Eastern Atlantic Plate
(vi) Eurasian plate
Pacific plate is the largest plate while Juan de Fucaplate (off Western coast of North America) is the smallest. -\
The collision of the Indian plate against the Eurasian plate, leading to the formation of the Himalayas.
Earthquakes
An earthquake is basically the vibration of Earth produced by rapid release of energy, along a fault.
Focus: Place of occurrence of anEarthquake inside the earth, where the energy is released. The ground ruptures at this spot, then seismic waves radiates outward in all direction.
Epicenter: The point on the earth's surface is located directly above the focus of an earthquake.
Seismic sensors called Seismographs, are located throughout the world can record the event.
Earthquake waves: Earthquakes generate pulses of energy called Seismic waves that can pass through the entire Earth. These are –
Primary (P) Waves: These waves travel both through solid crust and mantle and liquid part of the Earth's core.
Secondary (S) waves: Travels only through solid parts of the Earth.
Long (L) Waves: It is confined mostly to the skin of the Earth's crust, thereby, causing most of the structural damage.
The magnitude as the intensity of energy released by an earthquake is measured by Richter scale. It ranges between 0 and 9.
Seismic Zones of India-
India is divided into 5 seismic zones.
Zone 1 - Intensity V or below
Zone 2 - Intensity VI
Zone 3 - Intensity VII
Zone 4 - Intensity VIII
Zone 5 - Intensity IX and above
Volcano
A volcano is an opening or rupture in planet's crust through which hot magma, volcanic ash and gases escape from the magma chamber below the surface.
Volcanic eruptions cause earthquakes when they erupt and sometimes earthquakes can cause volcanic eruptions.They mainly happen by the edges of tectonic plates.
Products of Volcanic eruption
Ash
Flying Rocks
Poisonous gases
Lava
Pyroclastic flows
Floods and Mudslides
Active Volcanoes
On the basis of frequency of eruption the volcanoes can be divided into-
Active volcano: It has the capacity to erupt at regular basis and its frequency is quite more.
Dormant volcano: Though it has the capacity to erupt but frequency of eruption is almost nil.
Inactive volcanos don't have the capacity to erupt.
Composition: The atmosphere is a mixture of many discrete gases as Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon (0.93), Carbon dioxide (0.03)%, and others are Hydrogen, Helium, Krypton, yenon, Methane, Neon and ozone,
Troposphere: Lower most part of the atmosphere. All weather phenomena takes place in this layer. Height of troposphere at poles is about 8 km while at equator is about 16 km due to greater heating at the equator.
Stratosphere: Above troposphere is the stratosphere, which is primarily important because of the presence of ozone. This layer absorbs and scatters the solar ultraviolet radiation. It varies from 18-50 km.
Mesosphere: It is a transitional layer. This is the coldest region of the atmosphere. Its height varies from 50- 85 km. Meteors burn up in this layer.
Thermosphere: It starts just above the mesosphere and extends to 600 km high. Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.
Ionosphere: It is a layer of electrons and ionized atoms and molecules from 48 km to 965 km which has electrically conducting layers that help in Radio Communication. It overlaps into the mesosphere and thermosphere.
Exosphere: The outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere is known as Exosphere. It extends from the top of the thermosphere upto 10,000 km.
Structure of the Atmosphere
Energy transfer in the atmosphere takes place in 3 ways: radiation, conduction and convection.
The Earth's surface receives solar radiation at the rate of 1.94 calories per square centimetre per minute. This is called Insolation (Incoming Solar Radiation).
The vast amount of energy coming to and leaving the Earth's surface is through radiation.
Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted on a surface by the weight of air above that surface.
Mean Sea level pressure of the atmosphere is 2 mb.
Air pressure at sea level is higher than it is at the top of a mountain.
Air pressure increases when air descends,
Air pressure always decreases with increase in altitude,
Similarly, when air rises, its volume increases arid its pressure decreases.
The temperature of air rises when its pressure rises and temperature of air falls when its pressure falls.
The pressure of air falls when its temperature rises.
The pressure of air rises when its temperature falls.
High temperature along the equator causes the air to expand low pressure, it is called Doldrums, low pressure develops.
Atmospheric pressure is measured with Barometer.
Pressure belts
Atmospheric pressure is distributed across the latitudes in the form of pressure belts.
These belts are seven in number: Polar High, Sub Polar Low, Sub Tropical High, Equatorial low, Sub Tropical High, Sub Polar Low and Polar High.
Wind
Because of horizontal differences in air pressure, air flows from the areas of high pressure more...
The Oceans comprise more than 70% of the earth's surface.
The Seas receive almost 71% of all incoming solar energy due to its surface area.
Oceans are the primary source of moisture in the atmosphere and much of the rain over the continents.
Oceans are repository of a large number of useful metallic and non-metallic minerals such as petroleum, gas, salt, manganese, gold, diamonds, tin and Iron.
Most characteristic feature of oceans and seas is their salinity.
Salinity varies both horizontally and vertically and is maximum at tropics and decreases towards the equator and poles.
Continental shelves
Continental shelf in the seaward extension of the continent from the shoreline to the continental edge.
Continental shelves are rich in plankton, on which millions of fish thrive.
The continental shelves are therefore the richest fishing grounds in the world, e.g. the Grand Banks of Newfound land, North Sea and Sunda Shelf.
India is the seventh largest country in the world.
It covers an area of 32,87,2631 sq. km. lying entirely in the Northern Hemisphere, the mainland extends measuring 3214 km from the north to the south between extreme latitudes and about 2933 km from east to west between extreme longitudes.
It has a land frontier of about 15200 km.
India is situated north of the Equator between 8°4' and 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude and is surrounded by the Bay of Bengal in the East, the Arabian Sea in the West and the Indian Ocean to the South.
The Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Straits separate India from Sri Lanka.
There are as many as 200 islands in Andaman alone.
Four end points of India:
Eastern most point - Kibithu in Arunanchalpradesh
Western most point - Ghuar Mota of kutch in Gujarat
Northern most point – Siachen glacier in state of Jammu and Kashmir
Southern most point Indira point of Kanyakumari district in Tamilnadu.
Mountain Ranges in India
The Himalayan Range is the world's highest mountain range.
The tallest peak of the world, Everest, is also a part of it.
Karakoram Range lies in Jammu and Kashmir and comprises more than 60 peaks.
K2 (Mount Godwin Austen) is the second highest peak of the world, also a part of this range. Its height is 8611m or 28,251 fit.
Shivalik Hills extend from the Arunachal Pradesh to West Bengal and from Uttarakhand to Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Jammu, Kangra and Vaishno Devi are a part of this range.
Vindhya Range spreads across central India and extends across 1,050 km.
Aravalli Range is India's oldest mountain range and spreads across the parts of Rajasthan, Delhi Haryana. Guru Shikhar in Mount Abu is the highest peak of this range,
Satpura Range stretches from Gujarat and runs to Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
Deepor Beel, Chandubi Lake, Haflong Lake, Son Beel
Assam
Kanwar Lake
Bihar
Hamirsar Lake, Kankaria Lake, Nal Sarovar, Sur- sagar Lake
Gujarat
Brighu Lake, Dashir Lake Dhankar Lake, Kareri (Kumarwah) Lake, Kha- jjiar Lake, Macchial Lake, Maharana Pratap Sagar, Manima- hesh Lake, Nako Lake, Pandoh Lake,
Himachal Pradesh
Prashar Lake, Renuka Lake, Suraj Taal, Chandra Taal more...
India holds the second position in the world in agricultural production.
Salient features of agriculture in India
Subsistence Agriculture: Usually the farmers, along with their family members, grow crops in their small plot of land.
Pressure of Population on Agriculture The population in lndia is increasing at a high rate and this puts pressure on the agriculture sector Agriculture has to provide food and employment to large sections of the society.
Dependency upon Monsoon Agriculture in India mainly depends upon monsoon, which is unreliable, uncertain and irregular
Variety of Crops: India experiences both tropical and temperate climate and therefore supports the cultivation of crops suitable for both these climates.
Predominance of Food Crops Farming is practised in almost every part of the country and about two thirds of the total land is being used for agricultural purposes in India.
Seasonal Patterns: There are three distinct agricultural or cropping seasons in India - kharif, rabi and zaid.
India produces about 10% of the fruits produced in the world.
The country holds the first position in the world for the production of Papaya, Mangoes and Banana etc
India ranks sixth in the world in the production of
India has the biggest number of livestock in the world.
The major cocopping season observed in the Indian agriculture is Rabi, Kharif an Zaid.
Rabi Season: Lasts from October to April
Crops are shown in October and harvested in March and April.
Major crops grown, are Wheat, Barley,Mustard, Gram, Peas, Sunflower, Coriander, Onion, Potato, Oats, etc.
Kharif Season: It starts from the rain in July to October (the entire monsoon season)
Crops are shown in July and harvested in October,
Major crops grown are, Rice, Millet, Bajra, Maize, Bean, Groundnut, Red Chills, Cotton, Soyabean, Sugarcane, Turmeric, Urad, etc.
Zaid Season:
It extends from March to June and major crops are Watermelon, Muskmelon, Bitter gourd, Pumpkin, Cucumber, etc.
Aluminium - Kerala
Antimony - Antimony deposits are found in Punjab and Karnataka.
Asbestos - Karnataka and Rajasthan.
Barytes (Barium Sulphate) - Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Manbhum and Singhbhum
districts of Jharkhand.
Bauxite - Ranchi and Palamau districts of Jharkhand, Belgaum, Jharia and Thana districts of Maharashtra, Balaghat, Jabalpur,
Mandya and Bilaspur districts of Chhattisgarh.
Beryllium Sands - Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Kashmir and Bihar.
Cement - Katni (M.P), Lakheri (Rajasthan), Jabalpur (M.P.), Guntur
(Andhra Pradesh), Jhinikapani (Singhbhum district of
Jharkhand), Surajpur (Haryana).
China Clay - Rajmahal Hills, Singhbhum (district of Jharkhand), Kerala.
Chromite - Singhbhum and Bhagalpur (Jharkhand), Ratnagiri,
Salem (Tamil Nadu), Karnataka, Keonjhar (Odisha),Ladakh (Kashmir).
Coal - Raniganj (West Bengal), Jharia, Bokaro (Jharkhand), Giri-
dih, Karanpur, Panch Valley and Chanda (M.P), Singareni
(Andhra Pradesh) and Mukum (Assam).
Cobalt - Rajasthan and Kerala.
Copper - Jharkhand (Singhbhum and Barajamda), Chhattisgarh,
Rajasthan (Khetri).
Diamond - Diamond mines are found in Panna district of Madhya
Pradesh, Raipur district of Chhattisgarh.
Feldspar - Burdwan (West Bengal), Rewa (M.P), Tiruchirapalli (Tamil
Nadu), Alwar and Ajmer.
Gold - Kolar gold-fields (Karnataka).
Graphite - Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Odisha and Kerala.
Gypsum - Bikaner and Jodhpur (Rajasthan), Tiruchirapalli (Tamil
Nadu), Gujarat and Himachal Pradesh,
Iron Ore - Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Chhattisgarh, Keonjhar and
Mayurbhanj (Odisha).
Lac - West Bengal.
Lead - Zawar in Udaipur and at the Banjavi mines in Jaipur.
Lignite - Neyveli in South Arcot district (Tamil Nadu).
Limestone - Singareni and Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Panchmahals
(Gujarat), Balaghat, Bhandara, Chhindwara, Nagpur,
Indore, Vishakhapatnam, Sandur (Tamil Nadu).
Manganese, - Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh.
Marble - Jaipur (Rajasthan).
Mica Koderma in Hazaribagh district, Jharkhand, Monghyr
(Bihar), Nellore in Andhra Pradesh.
Monazite Sands - Found in abundance in Travancore Coast (Kerala).
Nitre - Bihar, U.R, Tamil Nadu and Punjab.
Petroleum Digboi, Badarpur, Musimpur and Patharia fields of Assan-
Pitchblende - Gaya (Bihar).
Red Stone - Jodhpur [Rajasthan).
salt - Sambhar Lake (Rajasthan}, and is also obtained from
ocean water in Rann of Kutch, on the north-western and
south-eastern littoral (sea-shore) of India.
Saltpetre - Punjab, U.P. and Bihar.
Silmanite - Khasi Hills (Assam), Rewa (M.P).
silver - Goldfields (Karnataka), Singhbhum and Manbhum (Jharkhand), Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan.
Tungsten - Bihar, Nagpur (Maharashtra) and Marwan
Uranium - Bihar,
Zinc - Zawar mines in Udaipur (Rajasthan).
Zircon - Beach sands of Kerala and Cape Comorin.
Census 2011
It is the 15th National Census survey conducted by the Census Organization of India.
C. Chandramouli -Commissioner & Registrar General of the Census 2011.
Survey has been conducted in 2 phases - house listing more...
Important Lakes: Lake Baikal Onega, Ladoga and Peipus in Russia, Lake Akan, Mashu, Bima, Shikotsu in Japan, Qinghai and Khanka in China, Dal, Chilka, Vembanad, Pulicat and Sukhna in India, Lake Matano and Toba in Indonesia, etc.
Important Plateaus: Anatolia plateau, Plateau of Iran, Arabia, Tibet, Tarim Basin, Mongolia, Deccan, etc.
In summer the Sun shines directly over the Tropic of Cancer, making the interiors of Asia very hot.
Because of the warm rising air, low pressure develops over vast area.
Moist winds from the sea all around are sucked into these low pressure centres. These are the 'Summer Monsoon' winds which bring rain to most parts of South and South East Asia.
In winter the Sun shines over the Tropic of Capricorn.
Natural Vegetation
Equatorial Forests: Mahogany, ebony, rosewood and palms.
Tropical Forests: Teak; sal, rosewood, banyan.
Deserts: Cacti, shrubs and thorny bushes.
Steppes: Dry grasslands (from Ukraine to Lake Balkash and Siberia).
Mediterranean Woodlands (Cedars, grapes and citrus fruits)
Temperate forests (Oak, Camellia, Camphor, Bamboo and Mulberry)
Taiga (temperate grasslands): spruce, fir, cedar, larch and pine.
Tundra: Snow covers most of the time; grass, shrub, moss, lichens.
Minerals: Oil, Natural gas.
Iron ore, Tin, Coal, Mica, Lead, Bauxite and Chromite.
Races
The Arabian groups - includes Arabs, Iranians, Jews, Turks.
The Indian groups - include people of Indian subcontinent,
The Mongoloid group – includes Chinese, Japanese, Koreans and people of South East Asia.
