Current Affairs UPSC

 Amendment of Constitution       Contents of the Chapter

• Amendment Procedure
• Amendments in Brief
• Amendments which were Later Repealed

    Part XX of the Constitution of India deals with the Amendment of the Constitution. The Article 368 specifies the power of Parliament to amend the constitution and the procedure of it. It is also mentioned in the Article that there will be no limitation on the constituent power of the Parliament for amending it by adding, removing or improving the provisions made in it. The method of an amendment to the Constitution is considered to be a highly complicated procedure. Amendment can be made by various methods, which have been modeled based on the South African Constitution. Since the enactment of the Constitution of India on 26 November 1949, there have been 94 amendments made to it till 2006. Number of Bills are introduced before Lok Sabha and Raja Sabha for further improving the Constitution.   AMENDMENT PROCDURE

• By simple majority of the Parliament: Amendments in this category can be made by a simple majority of members present and voting, before sending them for the President’s assent.

 

• By special majority of the Parliament: Amendments can be made in this category by a tow-thirds majority of the total number of members present and voting, which should not be less than half of the total membership of the house.

 

• By special majority of the Parliament and ratification by at least half of the state legislatures by special majority. After this, it is sent to the President for his assent.

  AMENDMENTS IN BRIEF

• 1st Amendment Act, 1951: Amended Articles – 15, 19, 85, 87, 174, 176, 341, 342, 376. Inserted Articles – 31A, 31B, Added Schedule – IXth

 

• 2nd Amendment Act, 1952: Amended Article – 81

 

• 3rd Amendment Act, 1954: Amended Schedule – XIIth Schedule List III, Entry 33.

 

• 4th Amendment Act, 1955: Amended Articles – 31, 31A, 305. Amended Schedule – IXth.

 

• 5th Amendment Act, 1955: Amended Article – 3

 

• 6th Amendment Act, 1956: Amended Articles – 269, 286 Amended Schedule – VIIth Schedule – List II, Entry 54; List I, 92A inserted.

 

• 7th Amendment Act, 1956: Amended Art. 1, 80, 131, 153, 158, 168, 222, 224, 230, 231, 232, 298, 371 and 1st, 4th and 7th schedule. Also amended Part VIII and inserted new Articles – 258A, 290A, 350A, 350B, 372A and 378A. It made consequential and minor amendment and repeals under Article 392.

 

• 8th Amendment Act, 1959: Article 334 amended – ‘20 years’ substituted for ‘10 years’.

 

• 9th Amendment Act, 1960: Act more...

  Seventh Schedule (Article - 246)         Contents of the Chapter

• LIST I—UNION LIST
• LIST II-STATE LIST
• LIST III—CONCURRENT LIST

    List I - Union List

Defence of India and every part there of including preparation for defence and all such acts as may be conducive in times of war to its prosecution and after its termination to effective demobilisation.

Naval, military and air forces; any other armed forces of the Union.

2A.       Deployment of any armed force of the Union or any other force subject to the control of the Union or any contingent or unit thereof in any State in aid of the civil power; powers, jurisdiction, privileges and liabilities of the members of such forces while on such deployment.

Delimitation of cantonment areas, local self-government in such areas, the constitution and powers within such areas of cantonment authorities and the regulation of house accommodation (including the control of rents) in such areas.

Naval, military and air force works.

Arms, firearms, ammunition and explosives.

Atomic energy and mineral resources necessary for its production.

Industries declared by Parliament by law to be necessary for the purpose of defence or for the prosecution of war.

Central Bureau of Intelligence and Investigation.

Preventive detention for reasons connected with Defence, Foreign Affairs, or the security of India; persons subjected to such detention.

Foreign affairs; all matters which bring the Union into relation with any foreign country,

Diplomatic, consular and trade representation

United Nations Organisation.

Participation in international conferences, associations and other bodies and implementing of decisions made thereat.

Entering into treaties and agreements with foreign countries and implementing of treaties, agreements and conventions with foreign countries.

War and peace.

Foreign jurisdiction.

Citizenship, naturalisation and aliens.

Extradition.

Admission into, and emigration and expulsion from, India; passports and visas.

Pilgrimages to places outside India.

Piracies and crimes committed on the high seas or in the air; offences against the law of nations committed on land or the high seas or in the air.

Railways.

Highways declared by or under law made by Parliament to be national highways.

Shipping and navigation on inland waterways, declared by Parliament by law to be national waterways, as regards mechanically propelled vessels; the rule of the road on such waterways.

Maritime shipping and navigation, including shipping and navigation on tidal waters; provision of education and training for the mercantile marine and regulation of such education and training provided by States and other agencies.

Lighthouses, including lightships, beacons and other provision for the safety of shipping and aircraft.

Ports declared by or under law made by Parliament or existing law to be major ports, including their delimitation, and the constitution and powers of port authorities therein.

Port quarantine, including hospitals connected therewith; seamen's and marine hospitals.

Airways; aircraft and air navigation; provision of aerodromes; regulation and organisation of air traffic and of aerodromes; more...

 Political System       Contents of the Chapter

• Political System in India
• Multi-party System
• National Parties
• Regional Parties
• Coalition Politics
• Criteria for Recognition of a Party

    POLITICAL SYSTEM IN INDIA India with a population of around a billion and an electorate of over 700 million - is the world's largest democracy and, for all its faults and flaws, this democratic system stands in marked contrast to the democratic failures of Pakistan and Bangladesh which were part of India until 1947. Unlike the American political system and the British political system which essentially have existed in their current form for centuries, the Indian political system is a much more recent construct dating from India’s independence from Britain in 1947. India's lower house, the Lok Sabha, is modelled on the British House of Commons, but its federal system of government borrows from the experience of the United States, Canada and Australia.  

• The Constitution was framed keeping in mind the socioeconomic progress of the country. India follows a parliamentary form of democracy and the government is federal in structure. In Indian political system, the President is the constitutional head of the executive of the Union of India.

 

• The real executive power is with the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers. According to the Article 74(1) of the constitution, the Council of Ministers under the leadership of the Prime Minister is responsible to aid and assist the President in exercising the Presidents function. The Council of ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha, the House of People.

 

• In states the Governor is the representative of the President, though the real executive power is with the Chief Minister along with his Council of Ministers. For a given state the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible for the elected legislative assembly of the state. The Constitution administrates the sharing of legislative power between Parliament and the State Legislatures. The Parliament has the power to amend the Constitution.

 

• Politics of India take place in a framework of a federal parliamentary multi-party representative democratic republic modeled after the British Westminster System. The Prime Minister of India is the head of government, while the President of India is the formal head of state and holds substantial reserve powers, placing him or her in approximately the same position as the British monarch.

 

• Executive power is exercised by the government. Federal legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the Parliament of India. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.

  Multi-party System

• A multi-party system is a system in which three or more political parties have the capacity to gain control of government separately or in coalition. Unlike a single party system more...

 Administrative Tribunals       Contents of the Chapter

• Administrative Reforms in India
• Evolution of the Indian Administrative System
• Existing Administrative System in India
• After Independence
• First Administrative Reforms Commission
• Second Administrative Reforms Commission
• Administrative Reforms Committees
• National Security Commission
• State Police Complaint Authority
• Reforms in Criminal Justice System
• Expenditure Reforms Commission, 2001

    The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act in 1976 introduced Article 323A according to which the Central and State Administrative Tribunals were set up. These Central and State Tribunals are set up to adjudicate cases related to recruitment, promotion, transfer and conditions of service of persons appointed to the Public services of the Union and the State Governments. The Parliament enacted the Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) with branches in specified cities. Several cities also have the State Administrative Tribunals.   The Chairman and Vice-Chairman of the tribunal has the same status as that of the High Court Judges. The Chairman and Vice- Chairman's retirement age is 65 years. The other members' retirement age is 62 years. The service matters related to employees of the Public Sector Undertaking (PSU) s are brought under the Central Administrative Tribunal or State Administrative Tribunals by a notification.

• There are certain categories of employees who are not included in the purview of the Administrative Tribunals (ATs). They are mentioned below:
• The employees of the Supreme Court and the High Courts do not come under the purview of the Administrative Tribunals.
• Armed Forces personnel
• The employees of the Secretariat of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha are also exempted from the purview of the Administrative Tribunals.
• According to the 42nd Amendment Act, only the Supreme Court can entertain cases relating to service matters.
• The Chairman and other members of the CAT and SAT are appointed by the President of India after consulting the Chief Justice of India. The Chairman must be a Judge of the High Court or one who served for atleast two years as the High Court Judge or the Vice- Chairman of Tribunal.
• The Tribunals are set up to relieve the Courts of overload load and expedite the process of justice both in the Central and in the State level.

  The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act in 1976 introduced Article 323A according to which the Central and State Administrative Tribunals were set up. These Central and State Tribunals are set up to adjudicate cases related to recruitment, promotion, transfer and conditions of service of persons appointed to the Public services of the Union and the State Governments. The Parliament enacted the Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) with branches in specified cities. Several cities also have the State Administrative Tribunals.

• The Chairman and Vice-Chairman of the tribunal has the same status as that of the High Court Judges. The Chairman and Vice-Chairman's retirement age is 65 years. The other members' retirement age is 62 years.
• The service matters more...

 Political Debate       Contents of the Chapter

• Presidential vs. Parliamentary
• In Favour of Presidential form
• In Favour of a Parliamentary form
• Separation of Power Used in USA
• Sepration Power used in India
• Indian Scene
• Main Areas of Conflict
• Agruments in Favour of Legislative Council
• Agruments Against Legislative Council
• Nexus with Insurgents
• Boycott of Elections
• Intelligentsia’s Support
• Option before the Government
• Conclusion

    PRESIDENTIAL VS PARLIAMENTARY Generally democracies are either Presidential or Parliamentary in form. In the former the Chief executive is directly elected by the people and is not responsible to legislatures. Removal of a President is normally through an impeachment procedure. The advisers to the President and they are not numbers of legislature. On the other hand, in’ a parliamentary democracy the Chief executive and advisers known as Council of Ministers are all chosen from legislature.   Both individually and collectively they are accountable to legislature. The members of the Prime Minister’s team are trained and tested in parliamentary system of governance and all of them go out if legislature chooses to cut their tenure.   Main features of a Presidential form of a Government are:  

No distinction between the National and the Real Executive. The executive powers of the Government are not only vested in the President, they are exercised by him in actual practice also. The President is, thus, both the head of the State and the head of the Government.

 

President is elected by the people for a fixed term. The President is elected, not by the Legislature, but directly by the entire electorate. Thus, both in regard to his election and tenure the President is not dependent on the Legislature.

 

The President is the sole Executive. All executive powers of the Government are vested in the President and are exercised by him. His cabinet has merely the status of an advisory body. Constitutionally, he is not bound by its advice. He may take the advice or may not take it at all. After getting the opinion of the Cabinet, he may refuse to accept it and may choose to act according to his own judgement.

 

Both the President and the Legislature are independent of each other in respect of their terms. The President and the members of his Cabinet are not members of the Legislature. The Legislature has no power to terminate the tenure of the President before its full constitutional course, other than by impeachment. Similarly, the President has no power to dissolve the Legislature before the expiry of its terms. Thus, the President and the Legislature are elected for fixed terms.

  Merits The following are the merits of the Presidential form of Government:  

Greater Stability: In the Presidential systems, the head of State has a fixed term. This ensures stability of the system. He is also free from day-to-day Legislative duties and control, which enable him more...

  Astronomy   NASA defines astronomy "the study of stars, planets and space”.   Universe   All existing matters, energy & space as a whole form universe. It contains both normal and dark matters. The normal matters are the visible parts such as sun, star, galaxies which contribute only 5% and the rest 95% are called the dark matter which is generally invisible.   Space   In astronomy & cosmology, space is the vast 3-dimensional region that begins where the earth's atmosphere ends. There are inter steller & intergalactic spaces.  

• Study of Universe is known as Cosmology.
• Big Bang Theory explains the origin of the universe.
• Universe comprises galaxies, that are huge concentration of stars.

  Galaxy  

• Galaxies are also known as Island Universe.
• Galaxies may be-

(i) Spiral       (ii) Elliptical and   (iii) Irregular

• The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System.
• Latest known galaxy is the Dwarf Galaxy.

  Star  

• Stars account for most of the Galactic Mass.
• They tend to form groups called Constellations.
• A star goes through various stages of evolution.

  The Life Cycle of a Star  

• A nebula is a cloud of gas (hydrogen)- and dust in space. Nebulae are the birthplaces of stars.
• A star is a luminous globe of gas producing its own heat and light by nuclear reactions [nuclear fusion).
• Stars are born from nebulae and consist mostly of hydrogen and helium gas.
• Red Giant stars is a dying star, i.e. the later stages of the evolution of a star like the Sun, as it runs out of hydrogen fuel at its centre.
• In few billion years, the Sun will turn into a red giant star, expand and engulf the inner plan ets, possibly even the Earth. Red Giant stars are very cool, faint and small stars, approximately one tenth the mass and diameter of the Sun. Proxima Centauri and Barnard's Star are red dwarfs.
• Red Dwarf stars are the most common & longest lived stars.
• They are the smallest of the stars with low temperature.
• White Dwarf is very small, hot star, the last stage in the life cycle of a star like the Sun.
• Black Hole is very small, hot star, the last stage in the life cycle of a star like the Sun. The gravitational pull in a black hole is so great that nothing can escape from it, not even light. So, it is invisible.
• Renowned Indian physicist

Chandrasekhar has given Chanderasekhar limit, which is about the formation of Black Holes.

• The closest star to the Earth is Sun.
• The closest star to our solar system is The Proxima Centauri.
• Light year, Astronomical unit (A.U.). Parsec is the unit of measurement of interstellar distance that is equal to 3.26 light years.

      more...

  The Solar System  

• The Sun, the nine planets (Pluto is not a planet now, considered as a dwarf planet) along with their satellites, the asteroids, the comets, the inter planetary dust and the electrically charged gases called plasma, together make up the solar system.
• Our solar system consists of an average star we call it the Sun, the planets - Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. It also includes: the satellites of the planets: numerous comets, asteroids, and meteoroids; and the interplanetary medium.
• The Sun is an average star. It isn't the hottest, it isn't the coolest, it isn't the oldest. Nor is it brightest, biggest, etc.
• The Sun accounts for 99.85% of all the matter of the solar system.
• It is composed mainly of hydrogen and helium.
• Nuclear fusion in the core of the Sun is source of all its energy.
• The glowing surface of the Sun is called Photosphere.
• About it is red coloured Chromosphere and beyond it is Corona (visible during eclipses).
• The surface of the Sun changes continuously. Bright regions are called Plages and dark spots are called Sun spots which frequentlyl form and disappear.

  Sun Statistics

• Distance from the Earth - 150 mn km
• Diameter-1391980 km
• Core temperature - 15000000°C
• Rotation time - 25 days
• Age - 5 billion years
• Composition – H2 - 71%, He - 26.5% and other 2.5%
• Mass-1.99 x l033kg

    Solar Eclipse

• Solar eclipse is caused when the Moon revolving around the Earth comes in between the Earth and the Sun, thus making a part or whole of the Sun invisible from a particular patrol the Earth.

                    Lunar Eclipse

• During the revolution of Earth, when comes between moon and the Sun the shadow of the Earth hides moon either fully or partially. This is called lunar edips.

  Planet A planet must meet three criteria:

• It must orbit the Sun,

(ii) It must be big enough for gravity to squash it into a round ball, (iii) It must have cleared other objects out of the way in its orbital neighbourhood.

• The Terrestrial Planets or Inner Planets are the four innermost planet in the solar system, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
• The Jovian Planets or Outer Planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune because they are all gigantic compared to Earth, and they have, gaseous nature.
• Mercury - It is the smallest and the closest planet to the Sun, without moon. Surface is full of craters.
• Venus - It is the second closest planet to the Sun, known as evening as well as morning star, rotates from east to west. It is the hottest planet. The atmosphere of venus is covered with thick clouds that strongly reflects sunlight.
• Earth - It is the third planet from the Sun with one more...

  Physical Geography   Planet Earth

• The Earth is the fifth biggest planet in the solar system.
• The form of Earth is 'Oblate spheroid'.
• The axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of Earth's orbit at an angle of 66 l/2°giving rise to different seasons and varying lengths of day and night.
• At equator, day and night are of equal length throughout the year.
• The Mid-day Sun shines vertically overhead at least once a year between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. Thus, this region receiving the maximum heat is called Torrid Zone.
• Temperate Zones are the areas where climatic condition is not extreme. The area lies between the tropics and polar region C231/20 x 66V20) having moderate climate.
• Frigid Zones: These are the two extremely cold zones situated in the Polar Regions extending to the Arctic circle in the North and to the Antarctic circle in the South.
• Equinox: It is a day of the year when the duration of day and night is equal and the position of the Sun is in its zenith. In a year there are two equinoxes. September Equinox, i.e.
• September 23rd, and March Equinox (March 21st).
• Solstice: Like equinoxes there are two solstices also, June 21st and December 21st . This is the time when Sun reaches either its highest or lowest point at noon resulting into shortest and longest day of the year in a hemisphere.
• Earth rotates on its own axis from west to east once in every 24 hours causing day and night.
• It revolves round the Sun in an orbit once in every 365 1/4 days causing the seasons of the year.

    Latitudes and Longitudes  

• Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the Earth's surface measured in degrees from the centre of the Earth.
• Longitude is the angular distance, measured in degrees along the equator, east or west of Prime Meridian (Prime Meridian that passes through Greenwich near London). It is also considered as 0°
• Equator, i.e. 0° is the biggest latitude that divides Earth into two equal hemispheres (North and South).
• Tropic of Cancer is 23.5° N
• Tropic of Capricorn is 23.5° S
• Arctic Circle is 66.5° N
• Antarctic Circle is 66.5° S
• This is the Prime Meridian from which all other meridians radiate eastwards and westwards up to 180°.

   

Latitudes

Major Continents

more... Catgeory: UPSC Short Notes - Rocks and Minerals   Rocks and Minerals   Rocks are naturally occuring hard substances made up of either single or multiple minerals compactly held together by cement like mineral matrix. As many as 87% of the minerals in the Earth's crust are silicates.   Types of Rocks On the basis of modes of formation there are three types of rocks. Igneous Rocks: Igneous rock is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava such as granite and diorite. Sedimentary Rocks: Sedimentary rocks are derived from the process of deposition and  solidification of sediments after the process of denudation. For instance; Sandstone, limestone and chalk rock salts, gypsum or calcium sulphate, etc. Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in a process called metamorphism, which means "change in form". Gneiss phyllite, slate, schist, marble, quartzite, etc belongs to the category ofmetamorphic rocks.   Basic rocks Metamorphosed   Limestone to Marbles Sand stones to Quartzites Shales/ Clays to Slates / Schist Granite to Gneisses Gabro to Serpentine Coal to Graphite   Whole Earth's Composition   more... Catgeory: UPSC Short Notes - Geographical Features   Geographical Features   Geographical features   are   the components of the Earth. Landform: Land forms are the recognizable unit of natural features on the earth's surface with varying shape, size and structure. It could be mountains, plateaus, valleys or small features like hills, eskers or canyons. Landscape: Large track of earth's surface or many related landforms with an aesthetic appeal together make up landscape. Topography: The arrangement of natural or artificial physical features of an area on the earth's surface, their inter relationship and configuration of structural entity is known as topography. Terrain: It   is   the   physical characteristics of natural feature of an area, i.e. its landforms, vegetation and soils.   Classification of Landforms   Mountains: It is a naturally uplifted portion of earth's surface from its surroundings.   Fold Mountains: Folded mountains were developed due to the tectonic activities where the upper part of the earth's crust are folded and warped toproduce rocky outcrops, hills or mountain. Alps in Europe, Rockies of North America, Andes of South America, Himalayas of Asia and Atlantic of North Africa. Block Mountains: Block mountains have developed due to swelling of earth's crust bound by tectonic fault and characterised by massiveness, stup slopes, and comparatively smooth topography. Varger in France, Black forest mountains in Germany and Salt Range in Pakistan. Volcanic Mountains:   Mountain formed due to the accumulation of molten lava flowing out from a volcanic eruption. Hence they are generally cone shaped mountains with a depression at the top. Mount Mauna Loa in Hawai Islands, Fuji Yoma of Japan and Mount Popa in Central Myanmar. Residual or Dissected Mountains: Nilgiris, Parasnath, Girnar and Rajmahal.   Plateau Plateaus are extensive area characterized by flat and rough top surface, steep sidewalls which rise above the neighbouring ground surface at least for 300 metres. Causes about 33% of the total earth's area.   Classification of plateau Plateau formed by exogenetic processes. These are- (i)      Glacial Plateau, e.g. Garhwal plateau, Greenland, Antarctica. (ii)    Fluvial Plateau, e.g. Kaimur plateau,  Bhander plateau, Rewa Plateau, Rohtas Plateau. (iii)    Aeolian Plateau, e.g. Porwar Plateau (Pak), Loess plateau (China). Plateau formed by endogenetic processes. These are- (i) Intermontane Plateau: The plateaus v/hich are parlly or fully enclosed by mountains are known as intermontane plateaus.  These  are the results of the mountain- building process which was accompanied by a vertical uplift   of  tlie   adjoining enclosed lands, e.g. Tibetan plateau,  Bolivian  plateau, Peruvien plateau, Columbian plateau and Mexican plateau. (ii) Piedmont Plateau : It is situated at the foot of a mountain, it is bounded on the opposite sides by a plain or an ocean. It is also called the plateau of denudation because areas which were formerly high have now been reduced in elevation by various agents of erosion, e.g. Appalachian plateau, Patagonien plateau (Argentina). (iii) Dome more... 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