Current Affairs UPSC

  World Geography (Africa)  

• Second largest continent.
• Stretches from 37°N to 35°S latitude.
• The Equator passes through almost the middle of the continent.
• Special feature is its Great Rift Valley.
• Important mountains - Atlas, Tibesti, East African mountains, Ahaggar mountains, Drakensberg, Mt. Kenya, Kilimanjaro (highest mountain in Africa).
• Sahara, the largest hot desert in the world, stretches across the entire width of North Africa.
• Other deserts are Kalahari, Namib, Nubian desert.
• Important rivers - River Nile (longest in the world).
• River Congo, River Niger, River Zambezi, River Limpopo (crosses the tropic of Capricorn twice), River orange.

  Important Dams

• Aswan Dam -River Nile
• Kariba Dam - Zambezi
• Kainji Dam - Niger
• Cabora Bassa Dam - Zambezi

  Important lakes of Africa: Lake Victoria, Taaganyika, Nyasa, Chad, Nasser, Kariba, Assal, etc. Climate As a large continent, Africa experiences a variety of climate. They are tropical monsoon, humid and sub humid tropical climate, mediterranean hot summer, hot desert climate, tropical wet/dry climate. Natural Vegetation Tropical Rain Forest: Mahogany, ebony and teak, oil palms, rubber-producing trees, orchid and lilic. Tropical Savannas: Oil palms, rubber tree and african Abony. Tropical Steppes and Deserts: Thorny Acacia euphorbias, dwarf palm, and juice tree. Mediterranean Forest: Cork oak, olive tree, cedar pine and iron wood. Montane forest: bamboo, wild variety of coffee and banana. Mangrove forest: Papyrus, tall grasses, and lotus.   Races Pygmies: A short height tribal community predominant in Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the Republic of Congo (ROC), the central African Republic Cameroon, the Equatorial .Guinea, Gabon, Angola, Botswana, etc. Bushmen: A group of yellow skinned nomads spreads along Botswana, Namibia South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Angola. Zaius: They are the typical African tribes and descendants of Nguni speaking people who occupied, kwazulu-Natal province of Africa. Yosai:  The semi nomadic tribe concentrated in Kenya. Bantus: A community Bantu spoken people concentrated in Rwanda, Angola, Burundi, Zimbabwe and South Africa Tropical wet and dry climate zone which further divided into equatorial, Tropical and Sub tropical, etc.                                                                                                                                                                         

  World Geography (South America)  

• South America is a long triangular shaped continent. It is 4th largest continent,
• Stretches from 12°N to 55°S latitude
• Mountains - The Andes (longest mountain range in the world.) Aconcagua, Ojendal     Salado Chimborazo, Cotopaxi,
• Lakes- Titicaca (highest navigable lake in world), Poopo, Argentino Junin, Buenos Aires.Nahuel Huapi.
• Angel falls (on Orinoco River) is the highest in the world.
• Deserts: Patagonia   (Argentina Atacama (Western Coast), Monte desert (Argentina)               
• Climate and Vegetation: Hot wet Equatorial Climate, Selvas (Dense rainforests), Savanaa (grasslands). Pampas (grasslands of Argentina)

Patagonia (temperate desert).

• The Pacific Coastlands lie between Andes and the Pacific Ocean.

  Important Crops

• Coffee - Brazil
• Cotton - Brazil
• Soybean - Brazil
• Wheat - Argentina
• Sugarcane - Argentina
• Sunflower - Argentina
• Beef-Argentina
• Fisheries - Peru

  Minerals

• Petroleum - Venezuela Maracaibolake), Trinidad
  • Gold - Ecuador, Brazil
  • Silver - Peru
  • Copper - Peru
  • Tin - Bolivia
  • Diamonds - Guyana
  • Emeralds - Colombia
  • Iron one - Brazil
  • Nitrates - Atacama desert
  • Aluminium - Brazil
  • Lead - Peru
  • Zinc - Peru
  • Coal - Colombia

  Tribes

• Bantu - Central and Southern Africa
• Berbers - Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia
• Masais - East Africa
• Hottentots - Kalahari
• Bushmen - Kalahari
• pygmies - Congo
  • Zulu - South Africa
• Tuaregs - Sahara
• Wolof- Senegal
• Fon-Benin
• Demba - Zambia
• Bambara - Mali
• Ashanti - Ghana
• Amhara - Ethiopia

 

  World Geography (North America)  

• Third largest continent after Asia and Africa.
• Extends from 7°N to 85°N latitude and east to west from 20°W to 179°W. Spreads over an area of 24 million sq. I km.
• The Tropic of Cancer and the North circle pass through the continent.
• Includes three large countries - USA, Canada, and Mexico.
• The Western Cordilleras: young Fold Mountains (Alaska to South America).
• Mountain Ranges- Rocky Mountains, Alaska Range, Coast Mountains, Mt. Logan.
• Cascades, Sierra Nevada and Sierra Madre, McKinley (highest peak of North America in Alaska).
• Lakes - Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario, Memphremagog, St. Clair, Champlain.
• Deserts: Great Basin desert, Painted desert.
• Mojave desert - Yuha desert.
• Chihuahuan desert - Baja California desert.
• Sonoran desert- Tehuacan desert.
• Moab desert- Mohave desert.
• Important Rivers:   Mississippi, Missouri, St. Lawrence, Mackenzie, Colorado, Hudson, Potomac, Ohio, etc.
• Death valley in California is the lowest point (- 86 m below sea level)
• Dam: Colorado river (Davis dam, Hoover dam, Parker dam and Buchanan dam)

Climate and Vegetation

• Tundra : Arctic Circle, Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay.
• Summers and Winters are cool and long; Lichens, mosses and Low berry.
• Taiga : Winters [long and cold), Summer(short and warm.)
• Trees: Pine, Fir, larch.

Temperate Eastern Margin

• Northern part of this region is influenced by cold labrador current and southern is influenced by trade wind.
• Major plant species includes Maple, Oak, Elm and Ash tree.

Cool Temperate West Margin Influenced by warm Alaska current Westerly rain through out the year and warm summers and wild winters. Coniferous trees are predominant here- Mediterranean Climate Influenced by trade wind in summer which make hot dry summer. As the climate is unfavourable for plant growth only scrub like vegetations are common here. Hot Desert: Great deserts like Mohave and Sonora are present on the South Western part of North America. Because the mountains to the east act as a rain shadow for Trade wind. Common plant species are Cacti, Sage, Thorn bushes, and Coarse Grasses. The Joshua tree is a taller cactus.   Grasslands: Prairies

• Winds: Chinook, Blizzards, Hurricanes, Tornadoes.
• Minerals: Gold, Iron, Copper, Silver, Nickel, etc.

Tribes

• Abenaki - Alent
• Apache - Arawak
• Aymara - Caddo
• Cayuga - Ponca
• Crow - Seneca
• Innu - Shoshone
• Yurok - Wichita

 

  World Geography (Australia)  

• World's largest island and smallest continent.
• The tropic of Capricorn cuts the continent almost into half.
• The Great Barrier Reef (largest coral reef in the world) is situated in Australia. The location of Australia is in between India and Pacific Ocean and it stretches west to east from 114° E longitude to 154° E longitude and from 10°S to 40°S Latitude.

The island was discovered by Captain cook in 1770.

• River- Murray and Darling.
• Deserts- Gibson Desert, Great Sandy Desert, Great Victoria Desert, Simpson Desert, Tittle sandy desert. Strzelecki Desert, Tanami Desert, Rangipo Desert.
• Both temperate and tropical climate is experienced in Australia.
• The winter lands of New South Wales of victoria, Tasmania, the south- eastern Australia, South west port of Australia comes within this temperate zone where 4 prominent seasons dominate the whole year. They are
• Summer
• Autumn
• Winter
• Spring
• Tropical wet and dry climate zone which is further divided into equatorial, tropical and sub-tropical etc.

  Climate and Vegetation   Natural Vegetation: The Predominant vegetation types are - Tropical rain forest region with dense cover of coconut and palms, mangrove growing near shoreline The deciduous forest region with tall and short tree , shrubs, small plants and mosses. The dry desert and desert scrub: It is the region with vegetation such as cactic. Grassland - Prominent Grasslands of Australia are Savanna and Downs.

• Crops- Wheat, Barley, oats, maize, sugarcane, tobacco and cotton.
• Largest number of sheep in the world.
• Largest producer of bauxite in the world.
• Industries- iron and steel, agricultural machinery, motor vehicles, electrical goods, chemical, ships, etc.
• Metals- Uranium (Kalgoorlie and Koolgardie), Lead, Zinc, Silver and Manganese
• Original Inhabitants. Aborigines.

  World Geography (Antarctica)    

• It is the fifth largest continent,
• It is completely covered by permanent ice and snow.
• Temperature: falling to - 90°C.
• Mosses and lichens are found all over clinging to rocky surfaces.
• Animals- krill, whales, seals, sea birds and penguins. ,
• Highest peak- Vinson Massif.
• Mountain range- Queen Maud Range (Longest mountain range).
• Volcano- Mount Sidley (highest volcano).
• Aurora Australia (Southern Hemisphere) and Aurora Boreail (Northern hemisphere) are fantastic display of lights in winters.

  World Geography (Europe)    

• It is the second smallest continent.
• Stretches from 35°N to 80°N latitude and from 10°W to 60°E longitude.
• Separated from Asia by Russia's Ural mountains and the Caspian and Black sea.
• Highest point- Elbrus.
• Lowest point- Caspian sea (28 m below sea level).
• Mountains- Ural Mt. Scandinavia, Mt. Old Block. The Alpine Alps, Jura.
• Carpathian Balkan.
• Deserts- Halendi, Bedowska, Deliblatska Pescara, Oltenian Sahara, Taberna Desert.
• Rivers- Rhone, Ebro, Po, Danube Dnieper, Don, Rhine, Seine, Thame, Elbe.
• Mild climate, moderate rain.
• Tundra, Taiga, Steppes (temperate grasslands).
• Trees- Elm, Oak, Beech Ash, Olive(most important tree)
• Minerals - Iron ore, Petroleum Mercury, Sulphur, Copper, Coal.
• European belong to white race known as Caucasian race.
• There are three distinct branches: Nordic people (tall, fair with very light hair and eyes.) Mediterranean people (shorter with dark skin, hair and eyes) and Mongoloid people (heavily built, as Lapps and Finns).

  Making of the Constituent Assembly  

• The Indian National Congress had officially, for the first time, demanded a Constituent Assembly in 1935, the idea was the brainchild of N. Roy.
• The British government accepted the demand in the ‘August Offer' of 1940 and finally 'the Cripps Proposal' on the framing of Constitution came out in 1942.
• Under the 'Cabinet Mission Plan' the Constituent Assembly came into exis- tence in November, 1946.

Its main features were:

Total strength=389. Out of these 296 were allotted to British-India and 93 to Princely states.

Every province and Princely state was allotted seats in proportion to their population.

The seats for British were divided among Muslims, Sikhs and General.

The representatives from each com- munity were elected by voting in the provincial legislative assembly.

The heads of Princely states nominated their members.

The elections were held in July-August, 1946.

• The first meeting was held on December 9, 1946 with only 211 members (Muslim league boycotted).
• Princely states decided to stay away so their seats remained vacant.

However, after the acceptance of Mount batten plan on June 3, 1947 most of the Princely states joined. The other significant changes were declaring the assem bly to be a fully sovereign body and also a legislative body.   Functions The Constituent Assembly drafted the Constitution and also:

• Ratified India's membership of the Commonwealth in May 1949.
• Adopted the National Flag on July 22, 1947. It was designed by Pingali Venkiah.
• Adopted the National song on Janu ary 24,1950.
• Adopted the National anthem on January 24, 1950.
• Elected Rajendra Prasad as the first President of India on January 24,1950.

Drafting committee

• The Constituent Assembly contained many committees for various purposes such as House committee, Rules of Procedure committee etc. but the most important of these was the Drafting Committee.
• It was set up on August 29, 1947 and was tasked with preparing a draft of the new Constitution.

  The seven members of the Committee were:

B R Ambedkar (Chairman)

N Gopalaswamy Ayyangar

K M Munshi

T Krishnamachari

Syed Mohammmad Sadullah

Madhav Ran

Alladi Krishnaswamy Ayyar

 

• The first draft of the Constitution was published in February, 1948. The people had eight months to discuss the draft. After discussions, suggestions and proposed amendments were considered and a second draft was prepared by the Assembly. The second draft was published in October, 1948.

The Drafting Committee met for a to tal of 141 days and took less than six months to prepare its draft.   Enactment of Constitution

• Enactment and enforcement of the Constitution took place on November 26, 1949 and January 26, 1950, However, some parts had come into force on 26 November, 1949 itself with the passing of the motion more...

  Powers and Functions   Executive Powers- Article 53 All Executive powers of the Union are Vested in him. These powers are exercised by him either directly or through subordinate officers in accordance with the Constitution. The Supreme Command of the Defense Force is vested on the President.

• Executive powers are exercised in accordance with the Constitution ac-cording to the provisions of article 14 (equality before law).
• President appoints the Prime Minister and other ministers; and they hold office during his leasure.
• He appoints the Attorney General of India, Comptroller and Auditor General of India, the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners, the Chairman and Members of the UPSC, the Governors of the states, the Chairman and the members of the Finance Commissions, etc.
• The President can appoint a commission to investigate into the conditions SCs, STs and OBCs.
• The President of India can grant a par don to or reduce the sentence of a convicted person for one time, particularly in cases involving unishment of death.
• The Legislative Powers
• The President can summon or end a session of the Parliament and dissolve the Lok Sabha.
• He can address the Parliament at the commencement of the first session after the general election and the first session of each year.
• He can also summon a joint sitting of both the houses of Parliament which is presided over by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
• The President can appoint a member of the Lok Sabha to preside over its proceedings the positions of Speaker as well as Deputy Speaker are vacant.
• He also can appoint any member of the Rajya Sabha to preside over its proceeding when both the Chairman's and Deputy Chairman's office fall vacant. He can nominate 12 members to the Rajya Sabha with extraordinary ac-complishments and two members to the Lok Sabha from the Anglo-Indian Community.
• His prior permission is needed for introducing bills in the Parliament.
• When a bill is sent to the President after it has been passed by the Parliament, he can give his assent to the bill or withhold his assent to the bill or return the bill (if it is not a Money Bill or a Constitutional Amendment Bill) for reconsideration of the Parliament.
• When a bill is passed by a State legislature is reserved by the Governor for consideration of the President, the President can give his assent to the bill, or withhold his assent to the bill or direct the Governor to return the bill (if it is not a Money bill) for reconsideration of the State Legislature.
• President can promulgate ordinances when both the Houses of the Parliament are not in session. These or dinances must be approved by the Parliament within the six weeks of its reassembly. The ordinance can be effective for a maximum period of six months and six weeks-Article more...

  Union Legislature  

• Part V of the Constitution deals with Parliament. According to Article 79, there shall be a Parliament for the Union, which shall consists of:
• President of India,
• Two houses consists of Council of States (Rajya Sabha or Upper House of the people and Lok Sabha or Lower House).
• It is important to appreciate that making the President a part of the Parliament is in conformity with the principles and traditions of the parliamentary form of government.
• The business of Parliament is transacted either in Hindi or in English. However, the members are permitted to address the House in their mother tongue.

  Rajya Sabha (Council of States)

• The Upper House of Parliament known as the Rajya Sabha held its first sitting on April 3,1952.
• Article 80 of the Constitution lays down the maximum strength of Rajya Sabha as 250, out of which 12 members are nominated by the President, 238 are representatives of the States and of the two Union Territories.
• The present strength of Rajya Sabha, however, is 245, out of which 233 are representatives of the States and Union Territories of Delhi and Puducherry and 12 are nominated by the president.
• The members nominated by the President are persons having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as iterature, science, art and social service.
• The Fourth Schedule to the Constitution provides for allocation of seats to the States and Union Territories in Rajya Sabha.
• The allocation of seats is made on the basis of the population of each State.
• The Rajya Sabha is not subject to dissolution. The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected for 6 years. One- third of the members retire every two years and new members are elected.
• The retiring member can be re-elected. To be eligible to be a member of the Rajya Sabha, a person must (a) be a citizen of India, and (b) be at least 30 years of age.
• Other qualifications are the same as those for the members of the Lok Sabha.
• There should not be a gap of more than six months between the two sessions. The President summons and has the right to prorogue the sessions of the Parliament.
• Lok Sabha can be dissolved by the President but not the Rajya Sabha, as it is a permanent house of the Parliament.

  Lok Sabha (People's House)

• Lok Sabha is known as the Lower or House of People.
• The Lok Sabha is the popular House of the Parliament because its members are directly elected.
• Its first sitting took place on May 13, 1952
• Normally, three Sessions of the Lok Sabha are held in a year, namely, the Budget Session, the Monsoon Session and the more...

  The Supreme Court  

• The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial forum and final court of appeal under the Constitution of India with the power of constitutional review.
• It comprises the Chief Justice of India and 30 other judges.
• It has original, appellate and advisory jurisdictions.
• A Division Bench comprises two to three justices and a Constitutional Bench comprises five or more judges.

  Tenure and Qualification and Salary

• Judges of Supreme Court are appointed by the President of India, as per the advice of the Union Cabinet.
• The qualifications are:

- A citizen of India who has been a judge of one high court or more [continuously), for at least five years, or - an advocate there, for at least ten years, or                            - a distinguished jurist, in the opinion of the President.

• Supreme Court judges retire at the age of 65 which is 3 years more than the retirement age of a judge of the High Court. Hence a judge at the Supreme Court who has been elevated from a High Court serves at the Supreme Court for at least more than 3 years.
• Article 125 of the Indian Constitution empowers the Indian Parliament to determine the salary, other allowances, of the Supreme Court judges.
• However, the Parliament cannot alter any of these privileges and rights to the judge's disadvantage after his appointment.
• TS Thakur is the present Chief justice of India.

  Impeachment

• A judge of the Supreme Court can be removed under the Constitution only on grounds of proven misconduct or incapacity and by an order of the President of India, after a notice signed by at least 100 members of the Lok Sabha (House of the People) or 50 members of the Rajya Sabha (Council of the States) is.passed by a two-third majority in each House of the Parliament.

  Jurisdiction

• Original Jurisdiction Article 131 of the Constitution empowers Original Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of India.

• The Supreme Court has exclusive original jurisdiction on all cases between the Government of India and the States of India or between Government of India and states on one side and one or more states on other side or cases between different states.
• In addition. Article 32 of the Constitution of India grants original jurisdiction to the Supreme Court on all cases involving the enforcement of fundamental rights of citizens,
• Appellate Jurisdiction Article 132 deals with Appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal in the country. Constitutional cases, civil cases and criminal cases, fall within this jurisdiction,
• The first woman judge of the Su preme Court was Justice Fatima Beebi in 1987.
• The second more...