Current Affairs UPSC

NCERT Extracts - Kings and Chronicles : The Mughal Courts

Who were the Mughals?

The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers. From their mother's side they were descendants ofGenghis Khan (died 1227), ruler of the Mongol tribes, China and Central Asia. The name Mughal derives from Mongol.
From their father's side they were the successors of Timur (died 1404).
However, the Mughals did not like to be called Mughal or Mongol. This was because Genghis Khan's memory was associated with the massacre of innumerable people.
On the other hand, the Mughals were proud of their Timurid ancestry, not least of all because their great ancestor had captured Delhi in 1398.
Babur, the first Mughal ruler, was related to Ghenghiz Khan from his mother's side. He spoke Turkish and referred derisively to the Mongols as barbaric hordes.
The founder of the empire, Zahiruddin Babur, was driven from his Central Asian j homeland, Farghana, by the warring Uzbeks.

From Turkish to Persian

Mughal court chronicles were written in Persian.
As the Mughals were Chaghtai Turks by origin, Turkish was heir mother tongue.
It was Akbar who consciously set out to make Persian the leading language of the Mughal court.
Cultural and intellectual contacts with Iran, as well as a regular stream of Iranian and Central Asian migrants seeking positions at the Mughal court, might have motivated the emperor to adopt the language.
Mughal official histories such as the Akbar Nama were written in Persian, others, like Babur's memoirs, were translated from the Turkish into the Persian Babur Nama.
The Mahabharata was translated as the Razmnama (Book of Wars).

The making of manuscripts

All books in Mughal India were manuscripts, that is, they were handwritten.
Calligraphy, the art of handwriting, was considered a skill of great importance.
It was practised using different styles. Akbar's favourite was the nastaliq, a fluid styte with long horizontal strokes.

The Painted Image

Painters too were involved in the production of Mughal manuscripts.
Chronicles narrating the events of a Mughal emperor's reign contained, alongside the written text, images that described an event in visual form.
The historian Abu'l Fazi described painting as a "magical art", in his view it had the power to make inanimate objects look as if they possessed life.
The production of paintings portraying the emperor, his court and the people who were part of it, was a source of constant tension between rulers and representatives of the Muslim orthodoxy, the ulama.
The latter more...

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NCERT Extracts - Architecture, Painting, Literature and Music

Architecture

The Mughals built magnificent forts, palaces, gates, public buildings, mosques, baolis (water tank or well), etc. They also laid out many formal gardens with running water.
In fact, use of running water even in their palaces and pleasure resorts was a special feature of the Mughals.
Babur was very fond of gardens and laid out a few in Agra and Lahore.
These gardens were called chahar bagh, four gardens, because of their symmetrical division into quarters.
Beginning with Akbar, some of the most beautiful chahar baghs were constructed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan in Kashmir, Agra and Delhi
Some of the Mughal gardens, such as the Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, the Shalimar Bagh at Lahore, the Pinjore garden in the Punjab foothills, etc., have survived to this day.
The famous mausoleum of SherShah at Sasaram (Bihar) and his mosque in the old fort at Delhi are considered architectural marvels.
Akbar was the first Mughal rulers, who had the time and means to undertake construction on large scale. He built a series of forts, the most famous of which is the fort at Agra.
Built in red sandstone, this massive fort of Agra had many magnificent gates.
The climax of fort building was reached at Delhi where Shah Jahan built his famous Red Fort.
In 1572, Akbar commenced a place-cum-fort complex at Fatehpur Sikri, 36 kilometres from.Agra, which he completed in eight years.
Built atop a hill, along with a large artificial lake, it included many buildings in the style of Gujarat and Bengal. These included deep eaves, balconies, and fanciful kiosks.
In the Panch Mahal built for taking the air, all the types of pillars used in various temples were employed to support flat roofs.
The Gujarat style of architecture is used most widely in the palace built probably for his Rajput wife or wives.
Akbar took a close personal interest in the work of construction both at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri.
Persian or Central Asian influence can be seen in the glazed blue tiles used for decoration in the walls or for tiling the roofs.
But the most magnificent building was the mosque and the gateway to it called the
Buland Darwaza or the Lofty Gate, built to commemorate Akbar's victory in Gujarat.
The gate is in the style of what is called a half-dome portal.
This devise, borrowed from Iran, became feature in Mughal buildings later.
Towards the end of Jahangir's is reign began the practice of putting up buildings entirely of marble and decorating the walls with floral designs made of semi-precious stones.
This method of decoration, called pietra dura, became even more popular under Shah Jahan who used it on a more...

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NCERT Extracts - Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb

The last years of Shah Jahan's reign were clouded by a war of succession among his sons.
There were many reasons for Aurangzeb's success. The victory of Aurangzeb at Dharmat (15 April, 1658) emboldened his supporters and raised his prestige, while it dispirited Dara and his supporters.
The battle of Samugarh (29 May, 1658) was basically a battle of good generalship.
Shah Jahan lived there for eight long years, lovingly nursed by his favourite daughter Jahanara, who voluntarily chose to live within the fort.
A panel of jurists decreed that Dara could not be suffered to live.
Unlike his predecessors, Aurangzeb did not like ostentation. His personal life was marked by simplicity. He had the reputation of being an orthodox, God-fearing Muslim.
In course of time, he began to be regarded as a zinda pir, or "a living saint".
While taking his stand on the Hanafi school of Muslim law which had been traditionally followed in India, Aurangzeb did not hesitate in issuing secular decrees, called zawabit.
Muhtasibs were appointed in all the provinces. These officials were asked to see that people lived their lines in accordance with shara.
Later, in the eleventh year of his reign (1669) Aurangzeb took a number of measures which have been called puritanical, but many of which were really of an economic and social character, and against superstitious beliefs.
Thus he forbade singing in the court and the official musicians were pensioned off.
Instrumental music and naubat (the royal band) were, however, continued.
Aurangzeb discontinued the practice of jharoka darshan or showing himself to the public from the balcony since he considered it a superstitious practice and against Islam.
Similarly, he forbade the ceremony of weighing the emperor against gold and silver and other articles on his birthdays.
Mustaid Khan is the author of the Maasir-i-Alamgiri.
Mustaid Khan, wrote the history of Aurangzeb in the early eighteenth century and had been closely associated with Aurangzeb.
In 1679, in the twenty-second year of his reign, Aurangzeb re-imposed Jizyah.
Mir Jumla, who had been appointed the governor of Bengal by Aurangzeb, wanted to make his mark by bringing Cooch Bihar and the entire Assam under Mughal rule.
Mir Jumla occupied the Ahom kingdom, Garhgaon, and held it for six months.
The Mughals had more success elsewhere in the east. Shaista Khan, who succeeded Mir Jumla as the governor of Bengal after his setback at the hands of Shivaji, proved to be a good administrator and an able general. He odified Mir Jumla's forward policy.
In 1669, the Jats of the Mathura region broke out in rebellion under the leadership of a local zamindar, Gokla. The rebellion spread rapidly among the peasants of the area and more...

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NCERT Extracts - The Rise of the Marathas

The Rise of the Marathas

The Marathas had important positions in the administrative and military systems of Ahmadnagar and Bijapur, and that their power and influence in the affairs of government had grown as the Mughals advanced towards the Deccan.
Both the Deccani sultans and the Mughals made a bid for their support and Malik Ambar used them in his army in large numbers as loose auxiliaries.
Although a number of influential Maratha families - the Mores, the Ghatages, the Nimbalkars, etc., exercised local authority in some areas, the Marathas did not have any large, well-established states as the Rajputs had.
The credit for setting up such a large state goes to Shahji Bhonsale and his son Shivaji.

Early Career of Shivaji

Shahji had left the Poona jagir to his neglected senior wife, Jija Bai and his minor son, Shivaji.
Shivaji showed his mettle when at the young age of 18, he overran a number of hill forts near Poona - Rajgarh, Kondana and Toma in the years 1645-47.
With the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadeo in 1647, Shivaji became his own master and the full control of his father's jagir passed under him.
Shivaji began his real career of conquest in 1656 when he conquered Javli from the Maratha chief, Chandra Rao More.
Mavali foot soldiers became a strong part of his army. With their help, he strengthened his position by acquiring a further series of hill forts near Poona.
The Mughal invasion of Bijapur in 1657 saved Shivaji from Bijapuri reprisal.
Shivaji first entered into negotiations with Aurangzeb. But he distrusted Shivaji and advised the Bijapur to expel him from the Bijapuri area he had seized.
Bijapur now decided to take stem action. It sent against Shivaji a premier Bijapuri noble, Afzal Khan, at the head of 10,000 troops with instructions to capture him.
Afzal Khan sent an invitation to Shivaji for a personal interview, promising to get him pardoned from the Bijapuri court.
Convinced that this was a trap, Shivaji went prepared, and murdered the Khan (1659) in a cunning but daring manner.
Flushed with victory, the Maratha troops overran the powerful fort of Panhala and poured into south Konkan and the Kolhapur districts making extensive conquests.
Shivaji's exploits made him a legendary figure. His name passed from house to house and he was credited with magical powers. People flocked to him from the Maratha areas to join his army.
Meanwhile, Aurangzeb was anxiously watching the rise of a Maratha power so near the Mughal frontiers. Aurangzeb instructed the new Mughal governor of the Deccan Shaista Khan to invade Shivaji's dominions.
Shivaji infiltrated into more...

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NCERT Extracts - Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities

Who were Tribal People?

Many societies in the subcontinent did not follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by the Brahmanas. Nor were they divided into numerous unequal classes. Such societies are often called tribes.
A tribal group controlled land and pastures jointly, and divided these amongst households according to its own rules.
In various ways, the tribes retained their freedom and preserved their separate culture
Contemporary historians and travellers give very scanty information about tribes.
A few exceptions apart, tribal people did not keep written records. But they preserved rich customs and oral traditions.
Tribal people were found in almost every region of the subcontinent.
In Punjab, the Khokhar tribe was very influential during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became more important. Their chief, Kamal Khan Gakkhar. was made a noble (mansabdar) by Emperor Akbar.
In Multan and Sind, the Langahs and Arghuns dominated extensive regions before they were subdued by the Mughals.
The Balochis were another large and powerful tribe in the north-west. They were divided into many smaller clans under different chiefs.
In the western Himalaya lived the shepherd tribe of Gaddis.
The distant north-eastern part of the subcontinent too was entirely dominated by tribes - the Nagas, Ahoms and many others.
In many areas of present-day Bihar and Jharkhand, Chero chiefdoms had emerged by the twelfth century. Raja Man Singh, Akbar's famous general, attacked and defeated the Cheros in 1591. A large amount of booty was taken from them, but they were not entirely subdued. Under Aurangzeb, Mughal forces captured many Chero fortresses and subjugated the tribe.
The Mundas and Santals were among the other important tribes that lived in this region and also in Orissa and Bengal.
The Maharashtra highlands and Kamataka were home to Kolis, Berads and numerous others. Kolis also lived in many areas of Gujarat. Further south there were large tribal populations of Koragas, Vetars, Maravars and many others.
The large tribe of Bhils was spread across western and central India. By the late sixteenth century, many of them had become settled agriculturists and some even zamindars
Many Bhil clans, nevertheless, remained huntergatherers.
The Gonds were found in great numbers across the present-day states of Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.
Nomadic pastoralists moved over long distances with their animals. They also exchanged wool, ghee, etc., with settled agriculturists for grain, cloth, utensils and other products.They bought and sold these goods as they moved from one place to another, transporting them on their animals.
The Banjaras were the most important trademomads. Their caravan was called tanda. Sultan Alauddin Khaiji used the Banjaras to transport grain to the city markets.
They transported food grain for the Mughal army during more...

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NCERT Extracts - The Making of Regional Cultures

The Making of Regional Cultures

In other regions, regional cultures grew around religious traditions. The best example of this process is the cult of Jagannatha (literally, lord of the world, a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa.
In the twelfth century, one of the most important rulers of the Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman, decided to erect a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri.

The Story of Kathak

Kathak is a dance form associated with several parts of north India.
The term 'kathak9 is derived from 'katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for story.
The kathaks were originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who embellished their performances with gestures and songs.
Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the spread of the bhakti movement.
The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila, which combined folk dance with the basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.
Under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab ofAwadh, it grew into a major art form.
However, it survived and continued to be performed by courtesans, and was recognized as one of six “classical” forms of dance in the country after independence.
Other dance forms that are recognised as classical at present are:

Bharatanatyam	-	Tamil Nadu
Kathakali	-	Kerala
Odissi	-	Orissa
Kuchipudi	-	Andhra Pradesh
Manipuri	-	Manipur

Painting for Patrons: The Tradition of Miniatures

Miniatures are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper-
The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood. Some of the most beautiful of these, found in western India, were used to illustrate Jaina texts.
With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many painters moved out to the courts of the emerging regional states. As a result Mughal artistic tastes influenced the regional court of the Deccan and the Rajput courts of Rajasthan.
Besides, themes from mythology and poetry were depicted at centres such as Mewar Jodhpur, Bundi, Kota and Kishangarh.
Another region that attracted miniature paintings was the Himalayan foothills around the modem-day state of Himachal Pradesh.
By the late seventeenth century this region had developed a bold and intense style of miniature painting called
Nadir Shah's invasion and the conquest of Delhi in 1739 resulted in the migration of more...

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NCERT Extracts - Growth of New India : The National Movement (1885-1905)

Consequence of Foreign Domination

It was the British rule and its direct and indirect consequences which provided the material, moral and intellectual conditions for the development of a national movement.
The foundations of the Indian nationalist movement lay in the fact that increasingly British rule became the major cause of India's economic backwardness.
Every class, every section of Indian society, gradually discovered that its interests were suffering at the hands of the foreign rulers.
The rising intelligentsia - the educated Indians - used their newly acquired modem knowledge to understand the sad economic and political condition of their country.
Politically, educated Indians found that the British had abandoned all previous pretensions of guiding India towards self-government.
British official and writers declared Indian to be unfit for democracy or self- government.
Moreover, the policies of racial dominance and discrimination apalled and aroused every thinking and self-respecting Indian, to whichever class he might belong.
To sum up, it was as a result of the intrinsic nature of foreign imperialism and of its harmful impact on the lives of the Indian people that a powerful anti-imperialist movement gradually arose and developed in India.

Administrative and Economic Unification of the Country

India was unified and welded into a nation during the 19th and 20th centuries. The British had gradually introduced a uniform and modem system of government throughout the country and thus unified it administratively.
The introduction of the railways, telegraph and a unified postal system had brought the different parts of the country together and promoted mutual contact among the people, especially among the leaders.
All over the country people saw that they were suffering at the hands of a common enemy - British rule.

Western Thought and Education

As a result of the spread of modem western education and thought during the 19th century, a large number of Indians imbibed a modern rational, secular, democratic and nationalist political outlook.
They also began to study, admire and emulate the contemporary nationalist movement of European nations.
It should be clearly understood that it was not the modem educational system that created the national movement which was the product of the conflict of interests between Britain and India.
The system only enabled the educated Indians to imbibe western thought and thus to assume the leadership of the national movement and to give it a democratic and modern direction.
Modem education also created a certain uniformity and community of outlook and interests among the educated Indians.
The English language played an important role in this respect.
In fact, more...

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NCERT Extracts - The Palas, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas

The Palas

Since the days of Harsha, Kanauj was considered the symbol of the sovereignty of north India. Control of Kanauj also implied control of the upper Gangetic valley and its rich resources in trade and agriculture.
The Pala empire was founded by Gopala, probably in 750.
He was succeeded in 770 by his son Dharmapala who ruled till 810.
Dharmapala was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva.
Dharmapala, occupied Kanauj and held a grand darbar there which was attended by vassal rulers from Punjab, eastern Rajasthan, etc.
Devapala was son of Dharmapala. He succeeded to the throne in 810.
He extended his control over Pragjyotishpur (Assam) and parts of Orissa. Probably a part of modem Nepal was also brought under Pala suzerainty.
Their power is attested to by an Arab merchant, Sulaiman, who visited India in the middle of the ninth century, and wrote an account of it.
He calls the Pala kingdom Ruhma, (or Dharma, short for Dharmapala) and says that the Pala ruler was at war with his neighbours, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas.
Information about the Palas is also provided to us by Tibetan chronicles.
According to these, the Pala rulers were great patrons of Buddhist learning and religion.
The Nalanda university was revived by Dharmapal a and 200 villages were set apart for meeting its expenses.
He also founded the Vikramasila university which became second only to Nalanda in fame. It was located on the top of a hill, on the banks of the Ganga in Magadha.
The Palas built many viharas in which a large number of Buddhist monks lived.
The Pala rulers also had close cultural relations with Tibet.
The noted Buddhist scholars, Santarakshita and Dipankara (called Atisa), were invited to Tibet, and they introduced a new form of Buddhism there. As a result, many Tibetan Buddhists flocked to the universities of Nalanda and Vikramasila for study.
The Palas had close trade contacts and cultural links with South-East Asia.
The powerful Sailendra dynasty was Buddhist in faith.
It ruled over Malaya, Java, Sumatra and the neighbouring islands.
It sent many embassies to the Pala court and sought permission to build a monastery at Nalanda, and also requested the Pala ruler, Devapala, to endow five villages for its upkeep. The request was granted.

India (800-1000 A.D.) The Pratiharas

The real founder of the Pratihara empire and the greatest ruler to the dynasty was Bhoja.
He rebuilt the empire and more...

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NCERT Extracts - The Chola Empire

The founder of the Chola empire was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in 850.

Age of Rajaraja and Rajendra - I

The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985-1014) and his son Rajendra I (1014-1044).
Rajaraja destroyed the Chera navy at Trivandrum, and attacked Quilon.
He also invaded Sri Lanka and annexed its northern part to his empire.
The Coromandal coast and Malabar were the centres for India's trade with the countries of South-East Asia. One of his naval exploits was the conquest of the Maldive Islands.
In the north, Rajaraja annexed the north-western parts of the Ganga region in north-west Kamataka, and overran Vengi.
Rajendra-I carried forward the annexationist policy of Rajaraja by completely overrunning the Pandya and Chera countries and including them in his empire.
The conquest of Sri Lanka was also completed. Sri Lanka was not able to free herself from the Chola control for another 50 years.
Rajaraja and Rajendra I marked their victories by erecting a number of Shiva and Vishnu temples at various places.
The most famous of these was the Rajarajeshwara temple at Tanjore which was completed in 1010.
The Chola rulers adopted the practice of having long inscriptions written on the walls of these temples, giving a historical narrative of their victories. That is why we know a great deal more about the Cholas than their predecessors.
One of the most remarkable exploits in the reign of Rajendra I was the march across Kalinga to Bengal in which the Chola armies crossed the Ganga, and defeated two local kings.
To commemorate his occasion, Rajendra I assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (or "the Chola conqueror of Ganga').
He built the new capital near the mouth of the Kaveri and called it Gangaikondacholapuram (or 'the city of the Chola conqueror of the Ganga').
An even more remarkable exploit in the time of Rajendra I was the naval expedition against the revived Sri Vijaya empire.
The Sri Vijaya empire, which had been revived m the 10 century, extended over the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the neighbouring islands and controlled the overseas trade route of China-
The rulers of the Sailendra dynasty were Buddhists and had cordial relations with the Cholas. The sailendra ruler had built a Buddhist monastery at Nagapatam.
The chola navy was the strongest in the area of some time and the Bay of Bengal was converted into a ‘Chola lake’.
The chola rulers also sent a number of embassies to China.
A Chola embassy of 70 merchants reached china in 1077 and, according to a Chinese account received “81,800 strings of copper cash”.
The more...

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NCERT Extracts - Economic and Social Life, Education and Religious Beliefs (800 - 1200)

Economic and Social Life, Education and Religious Beliefs (800 - 1200)

The setback to trade and commerce was, in part, due to the collapse in the West of the Roman Empire with which India had flourishing and profitable trade.
The chief Indian port for sailing to Java, Sumatra, etc., was Tamralipti in Bengal.
Many of the Rajput clans trace their genealogy to the solar and lunar families of kshatriyas which are mentioned in the Mahabharata.
Some others trace their ancestry back to a sacrificial fire said to have been held at Mt. Abu by the sage Vasistha.
An instance of this is the kayastha caste, which begins to be mentioned more prominently from this period.
The Matsya Purana authorises the husband to beat his erring wife (though not on the head or the breasts) with rope or a split bamboo.
Nalanda in Bihar was the most famous of these. Other such centres of learning included Vikramsila and Uddandapura which also were in Bihar.
Kashmir was another important centre of education.
However, some advance was made in the field of mathematics. The Lilawati of Bhaskar-II which was written during this period remained a standard text for a long time.
Although a great admirer of Indian science and learning, Al-Biruni noted the insular attitude of the learned people of the country, viz., the brahmanas. He says : "They are haughty, foolish vain, self-conceited, and stolid,
The followers of Gorakhnath were called Nath-Panthis, and at one time they were popular all over north India. Many of these yogis belonged to the lower castes.
The Chalukyan rulers of Gujarat patronized Jainism. It was during this time that some of the most magnificent Jain temples, such as the Dilwara temple at Mt. Abu, were built
During this period, many Jain basadis (temples) and mahastambhas (pillars) were set up in different parts.
The colossal images at Sravana Belgola was set up during this time. The status is about 18 metres high and was cut out of a granite rock.
At the intellectual level, the most serious challenge to Buddhism and Jainism was posed by Sankara who reformulate the Hindu philosophy.
Sankara was bom in Kerala, probably in the ninth century,
Sankara's philosophy is called Advaitavada or the doctrine of non-dualism. This philosophy is called Vedanta. Thus, Sankara upheld the Vedas as the fountainhead of true knowledge,
In the eleventh century, another famous scholar, Ramanuja, tried to assimilate bhakti to the tradition of the Vedas.
Ramanuja tried to build a bridge a between the popular movement based on bhakti and upper caste movement based on the Vedas.
The tradition established by Ramanuja was followed by a nimber of thinkers such as Madhavacharya (tenth century), and in more...

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