Pre - historic period is divided into three sections- Stone age, Bronze age and Iron age. Stone age is divided into three periods, i.e. Palaeolithic Age, Mes olithic Age
Lower Palaeolithic Age covers the greater part of the Ice Age.
Its people used to eat fruits, birds and raw animal flesh, etc.
The tools were usually made of hard rock. In Middle Palaeolithic age a bit change occurred in the shape of tools made of stones or bones.
In Upper Palaeolithic age, human lived as nomadic hunter gatherers.
Mesolithic Age was an intermediate stage in the Stone Age. It ended with the introduction of agriculture.
Neolithic age was an age of polished tool culture.
Tool making became an important profession and a variety of polished tools were manufactured.
They learnt the art of pottery and their pots were well made and decorated with paintings.
They discovered the art of producing fire by the friction of stones and the wheel was also an important discovery of this age.
Chalcolithic Age is marked by the use of copper as copper age. The economy was based on subsistence agriculture, stock-raising, hunting and fishing.
The Chalcolithic people slaughtered animals for food. Neither they milked animals for dairy products nor did they practise cultivation.
It was the transitional stage when both bronze, copper and stone tools were used and humans started living settled life.
The Iron Age is usually associated with the Painted Grey Wares (P.G.W.).
The adoption of Iron brought various changes in society including agricultural practices, religious beliefs and attractive artistic styles.
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a unique Bronze Age civilization (2500-1700 B.C.) based on Carbon-14 dating.
The Civilization flourished around the Indus river basin and its tributaries, consisting of modern Pakistan and northwestern India.
Town planning
The main streets ran from north to south varied from 9 to 34 feet in width. Roads, especially in Mohenjo- Daro had a width of 10.5 meter. The
Harappa had wide roads of width of 30 feet.
There was an impressive building which was used as a public bath. The overall dimension of the Bath is 180 feet by 108 feet used for religious both.
Houses, often two-storey and spacious, lined up on the streets; there was well drainage system resulting in the brick-lined sewers.
In town planning, grid system, underground drainage and granaries were found.
Culture
Lothal, Balakot, Suktagendor and Allahdin (Pakistan) in the cities of the Harappan civilization were the major ports.
Domesticated animals included dogs and cats, humped and sea cattle, poultry, and possibly pigs, camels and Buffalo. Elephant, probably, too, was domesticated, and his bones and tusks were freely used.
Women were given high honour in society. Family was regulated in the sname of mother.
The Indus Civilization had four different classes in which the society was divided, i.e. Scholars, warriors, businessmen and labourers.
In the valley of the Indus people used irrigation-based agriculture.
Harappan people had features of Hinduism, such as worship of the mother Goddess, Pashupati Shiva, Sacred animals, trees, etc.
Indus Valley Sites - Excavators
Harappa -1921- Dayaram Sahni
Mohenjodaro- 1922- R.D.Banerjee
Sutkagendor- 1927-Aurel Stein, George
Dalesamri -1929- M.G.Majumdar
Chanhudaro-1931- M.G.Majumdar
Rangpur -1931- M.S.Vats
Kot Diji-1935- Fazal Khan
Dabarkot- 1935- Maichke
Kili Ghul Mohammad-1950- Fairservis
Kalibangan- 1953-A..Ghosh
Ropar -1953- Y.D.Sharma
Lothal -1957- S.R.Rao
Surkotada-1964- Jagatpati Ghosh
Dholvira-1967-J.P.Joshi
Sites their LocationMohenjodaro- Sindh, PakistanHarappa- Punjab Province, PakistanDholavira- Rann of Kutch in Gujarat -Lothal- Gulf of Khambat in Gujarat Rakhigarhi- Haryana Ganweriwala- Punjab, PakistanBanawali- HaryanaChanhudaro- Kutch in GujaratKalibangan- RajasthanKot Diji- Sind, PakistanRopar- Punjab (India)Surkotada- Kutch, GujaratSuktagendor - Bank of Dast,Balochistan more...
The Vedic Period or the Vedic Age refers to the period when the Vedic Sanskrit texts were composed in India.
Literally 'Aryans' means - the 'best' or 'eminent'.
The Aryans are supposed to have migrated from Central Asia into the Indian Subcontinent in Several stages during 2000 to 1500 B.C.
In order to prove their supremacy the Aryans called themselves 'The Aryas' and they called their opponents 'Anarya', 'Dasyu' or 'Das'.
The Rigveda [1500-1000 BC) consists of 1028 hymns. These hymns were sung in honour of various gods and were recited by Hotri.
The Gaytri Mantra had been discovered from the Rig Veda.
The Sindhu and its tributaries are called Sapta Sindhu.
The Yajur Veda is a book of sacrificial prayers. It is written in both verse and prose.
The Sama Veda consists of 1549 hymns. It is a book of chants for singing during sacrifices.
The Atharva Veda is a book of magical formulae which reflects the popular conventions and rituals of that period.
The Brahmans were composed after the Vedas to explain the hymns of th Vedas. They are written in prose and ritualistic in nature.
Veda and their Brahmans
Rigveda - Aitareya and Kaushitiki orShankhyan.
Samveda - Panchvisa (Tandya Mahabrahman), Shadvinsh Brahman, Jaiminiya Brahman.
Yajurveda - Shatapath [the oldest and the largest Brahman) and Taittariya.
Atharva Veda - Gopath (A treatise on medical science, charms and magic).
The Aranyakas were written mainly for the hermits and the jungle living students.
The Upanishadas are anti-ritualistic discussing about the relations between Brahma (God) and Jiva (Creature).
Upanishadas are philosophical texts and are called Vedanta as they came towards the end of the Veda.
Vrihadaranyaka is the oldest Upani- shadas among all the 108 Upanishadas.
According to Rigveda, the famous Dasrajan Yuddha or the battle of ten kings was fought between Sudas, a Bharat King of the Tritsu family, and the confederacy of ten well-known tribes - Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Paktha, Bhalnas, Siva and Vishanin.
In the bloody and decisive battle on the banks of river Parushni, the Bharatas emerged victorious.
Sabha and Samiti (Popular Assemblies) controlled the affairs of Vedic states. These two assemblies were called the two daughters of Prajapati.
Important Terminologies
The Kula -the family
The Gram -the village
The Visha- the clan
The Jana- the people
The Rashtra -the nation
The Vedic Aryans worshipped the forces of nature such as Earth, Fire, Wind, Rain and Thunder; their main occupation was cattle rearing.
The King was responsible for the protection of the tribe.
Vedang were composed during post- vedic period. Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakaran, Nirukta, Chhanda and jyotish more...
The later Vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called the Brahmanas, rajanyas or kshatriyas, vaisyas and shudras, each varna was assigned with its duty.
All the three higher varnas shared one common feature, they were known as Dvijas [twice born).
The fourth varna was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony, and with it began the imposition of disabilities on the shudras.
The worst position is reserved for the shudra. He is called the servant of another.
Women were generally given a lower position.
Ashramas or the four stages of life were created in the post-Vedic time.
The four ashramas were: Brahmachari or a student, grihastha or householder, vanaprastha or partial retirement and sanyasa or full withdrawal from the world.
Kingdoms of the Later Vedic Period
Kingdom Location
Panchal Bareilly, Badayun & Farrukhabad in U.P.
Kushinagar Northern region of UttarPradesh
Kashi Modern Varanasi
Koshal Faizabad in Uttar Pradesh
Southern Madra NearAmritsar
Uttara Madra Kashmir
Eastern Madra Near Kangra
Kekaya On the bank of Beas River east of Gandhar kingdom
Gandhar Rawalpindi & Peshawar
Different types of Marriages
Asura: Marriage by purchase.
Gandharva: Marriage by the consent of two parties, often clandestine. A special form of it was syamvara or self-choice.
Brahma: Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same varna with Vedic rites and rituals.
Daiva: Father gives the daughter to the sacrificial priests as part of fee or dakshma.
Arsa: A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given.
Prajapati: Marriage without dowry and bride-price.
Paisacha: It is seduction of a girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk, hence it can hardly be called a marriage.
Rakshasa: Marriage by Capture.
Prajapati, the Creator, came to occupy a Supreme position in the later Vedic Period.
The main cause being reaction against domination of Brahmins and spread of agricultural economy in North-East.
Jainism
Founder - Rishabhadeva [First Tirthankara).
Mahavira was the last of the 24 tirthankaras.
Jainism was divided into two sects: Shwetambaras and Digambaras.
The First Council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu.
The Second Council was held at Valabhi under the leadership of Devaradhi Kshamasramana.
Teachings
Jainism was based on 5 doctrines :
Ahinsa, i.e. non-violence; (ii) do not speak a lie, (hi) do not steal, (iv) do not acquire property, and (v) observe continence [Brahmacharya).
Only the fifth (v) doctrine was added by Mahavir.
Jainism recognizes the existence of the Gods but regarded them lower than the jina.
Jainism did not condemn the Varna system.
Three Gems of Jainism (Ratnatrya)
these are :
(i) Right faith (Samyak Vishwas)
(ii) Right knowledge (Samyak Gyan)
(iii) Right conduct/action (Samyak Karma)
Five Categories of Siddhas
(i) Tirthankara - who has attained salvation.
(ii) Arhat - who is about to attain Nirvana.
(iii) Acharya - The head of the ascetic group.
(iv) Upadhyaya - teacher or saint, and
(v) Sadhu - an ordinary ascetic.
Buddhism
Gautam Buddha was the founder'of Buddhism.
His real name was Siddhartha.
His father was a king named Suddodana Tharu and Mother was Mahamaya.
He was born at Lumbini.
He discovered enlightenment under the peepal tree (Bodhi Vriksha) in Gaya, Biharatthe age of 35.
He gave his first sermon at the Deer Park in Sarnath.
It was divided into three main sects: Hinayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana,
There are three tripitak : Vinay Pitak [rules and regulations, which the Buddha promulgated), Sutta Pitak [discourses delivered by Buddha himself) and Abhidhamma Pitak [religions discourses of Buddha).
Milindapanhs [dialogues between Menander and Buddhist saint Nagsen).
Jatakas are the pre-birth stories of Buddha.
He died at Kushinagara in LI.P. The capital of mallas.
Buddha means enlightened or the awakened or the wise one.
Nirvana means to blow out or extinguish fires of greed, hatred and delusion.
The followers of Hinayana believed in the original teaching of Buddha.
Hinayanas did not believe in idol- worship.
Hinayanas believed in the heavenliness of Buddha.
Mahayanas sought solution through the grace of Buddha.
Mahayanas believes in idol-worship.
Vajrayana believes that salvation can be attained by magical power [i.e. Vajra)
Vajrayana became popular in Bihar, Bengal, Tibet.
Buddhist Councils
First Council at Rajgir where Vinaya Pitaka & Sutra Pitaka were compiled.
Second council at Vaishali in 383 B.C.
Third Council at Patliputra in 250 B.C. during Ashoka's reign.
Fourth Council in Kashmir during Kanishka's reign.
Important Dynasties in Ancient India
The Haryanaka dynasty (544-412 B.C.)
Bimbisara was the first ruler and founder of Haryanka dynasty. The capital of the kingdom was Rajagriha.
He strengthened his position by matrimonial alliances. He took three wives: daughter of the king Kosala, Chellana [Lichhavi Princess) and daughter of the chief of the Madra clan of Punjab.
Bimbisara Sent Jivaka to Ujjain for the treatment of King Pradyota, the king of Avanti.
Bimbisara was succeeded by his son Ajatasatru who killed his father and seized the throne for himself.
He was contemporary to Lord Mahavira and Lord Buddha and a sfollower of Buddhism.
Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin.
He built the fort upon the confluence of the Ganga and Son at Patna.
He shifted the capital from the Rajagriha to Pataliputra.
Ajatasatru was killed by his son Udayin.
Shishunaga dynasty (412 - 344 B.C.)
The last Haryanka ruler, Nagadasaka, was killed by his courtier Shishunaga in 430 B.C, who became the king and founded the Shishunaga dynasty.
Shishunaga was succeeded by his son Kalashoka. The Second Buddhist Council was organised at Vaishali under the sponsorship of Kalashoka in 383 B.C.
The last ruler of Shishunaga dynasty was Nandivardhan.
Nanda dynasty (344-321 B.C.)
Mahapadmananda established the Nanda dynasty into a powerful empire.
The Nanda dynasty had a huge army consisting 2,00,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants.
Last ruler of Nanda dynasty was Dhanananda. He was contemporary of Alexander.
Alexander invasion of India took place in 326 B.C. during the reign of Dhanananda.
The great Mathematician Aryabhata lived during this age. He discovered the number "0" and value of Pi. He wrote "Aryabhatiya" and "Suryasiddhanta".
Kalidas the great poet also belonged to this period.
The great Physician Dhanvantari was also born in this era.
During this age Sanskrit language and literature were at its peak Poets Kalidasa, Dandi, Visakhadatta, Shudraka, and Bharavi — all belonged to the Gupta Age.
Chandragupta (320-33S AD) was the son of Ghatotkacha and grandson of Sri Gupta.
He married to Kumaradevi, the Lichhavi princess of the rich ruling family in Magadha which helped the Gupta Empire to become a powerful empire.
Sumudragupta [AD 335-375] Harisena described him as the "Hero of a Hundred Battles."
He was the greatest ruler of Gupta dynasty. He is called "Indian Napoleon",
Prayag Prashasti [Written by Harisen) is the main source of information on his reign.
Samundragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta Vikramaditya [or 11].
Chandragupta II married his daughter Prabhavati with a Vakataka prince who belonged to the Brahmana caste and ruled in central India.
His court had Navaratna (Nine Jewels). Kalidasa was one of the jewels among this Navaratna.
He conquered western Malwa and Gujarat, which had been under, the rule of the Saka Kshatrapas for about four centuries by that time.
Capital of Chalukyas [AD 543-753)-Badami (Bagalkot district of North Karnataka)
Pulakeshin I is generally attributed to be the first Chalukyan king.
Pulakeshin H was the most prominent ruler of the dynasty who ruled from 608 A.D. and was a contemporary of Harshavardhan. He stopped
Harshavardhan to march into the Deccan.
The Pallavas initially conquered the region of Thondaimandalam.
Narasimhavarman completed the beautiful temples of Mahablipuram.
Rashtrakutas (AD 753-973)
Founded by Dantidurg; Krishna I built Kailasha temple at Ellora. Amoghavarsha, who is compared to Vikramaditya, wrote the first Kannada poetry Kaviraj Marg. Rashtrakutas credited for building cave shrine Elephanta dedicated to Shiva.
Gangas
Ruled Orissa; Narsimhadeva constructed Sun Temple at Konark; Anantvarman built the Jagannath Temple at Puri; and Kesaris who used to rule before Gangas built the Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneshwar.
Pallavas (AD 600-757)
Founder-Simhavishnu; capital-Kanchi; greatest king Narsimhavarman who founded the town of Mamallapuram [Mahabalipuram] and built rock-cut raths or even pagodas.
Palas dynasty was founded by Gopala 1, who was elected as king of people.
Palas with capital at Monghyr is known for Dharmapala, their second king, who founded Vikramashila University and revived Nalanda University.
The greatest ruler of Pratiharas was Bhoja [also known as Mihir, Adivraha).
Khajuraho temples were built during the reign of Chandellas of Bundelkhand.
Rajputs divided into four clans:- Pratiharas (S Rajasthan), Chauhans [E Rajasthan], Chalukyas/Solankis (Kathiawar), Parmaras [Malwa].
The Cholas (AD 985-1279)
Founder Vijayalaya, Capital Tanjore.
Aditya I Chola wiped out Pallavas and weakened Pandayas.
Purantaka I captured 'Madurai, but defeated by Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III at the Battle of Takkolam.
Rajaraja I [AD 985-1014) led a naval expedition against Shailendra empire (Malaya Peninsula) and conquered Northern Sri Lanka; constructed
Rajarajeshwari [or Brihadeshvara) Shiva temple at Tanjore.
Rajendra I [AD 1014-10441 annexed whole Sri Lanka; took ths title of Gangaikonda and founded Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
Dancing Figure of Shiva (Nataraja) belong to Chola period. Local self-government existed.
