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In chemistry isomerization (also isomerisation) is the process by which one molecule is transformed into another molecule which has exactly the same atoms, but the atoms have a different arrangement e.g. A-B-C → B-A-C (these related molecules are known as isomers). In some molecules and under some conditions, isomerization occurs spontaneously. Many isomers are equal or roughly equal in bond energy, and so exist in roughly equal amounts, provided that they can interconvert relatively freely, that is the energy barrier between the two isomers is not too high. When the isomerization occurs intramolecularly it is considered a rearrangement reaction.    In n-alkanes, no carbon is bonded to more than two other carbons, giving rise to a linear chain. When a carbon is bonded to more than two other carbons, a branch is formed. The smallest branched alkane is isobutane. Notice that isobutane has the same molecular formula, C 4 H more...

 ï»¿ In chemistry, Le Chatelier's principle, also called Chatelier's principle or "The Equilibrium Law", can be used to predict the effect of a change in conditions on a chemical equilibrium. The principle is named after Henry Louis Le Chatelier and sometimes Karl Ferdinand Braun who discovered it independently. It can be summarized as:   If a chemical system at equilibrium experiences a change in concentration, temperature, volume, or partial pressure, then the equilibrium shifts to counteract the imposed change and a new equilibrium is established.  ï»¿ This principle has a variety of names, depending upon the discipline using it. See, for example, homeostasis. It is common to take Le Chatelier's principle to be a more general observation, roughly stated:   Any change in status quo prompts an opposing reaction in the responding system. In chemistry, the principle is used to manipulate the outcomes of reversible reactions, often to increase the yield of reactions. In pharmacology, the binding of ligands to the receptor may shift more...

For a general chemical equilibrium      the thermodynamic equilibrium constant can be defined such that, at equilibrium,       where curly brackets denote the thermodynamic activities of the chemical species. The logarithm of this expression appears in the formula for the Gibbs free energy change for the reaction. If deviations from ideal behaviour are neglected, the activities may be replaced by concentrations, [A], and a concentration quotient, Kc.       Kc is defined which is equal to the thermodynamic equilibrium constant divided by a quotient of activity coefficients. For ideal behaviour this quotient has a value of 1, and Kc = K (Kc appears here to have units of concentration more...

Molecularity Of Reaction The molecularity of a reaction simply refers to the number of molecules involved in the rate limiting rate of that reaction. The rate limiting step is the slowest step to take place in the intermediate pathway between the reactants and final products. For example, suppose compounds A and B react to form compound C. The reaction does not necessarily take place in one step. It may be necessary for compound A to first ionize before it can react with compound B, so that the reaction mechanism is:  1. A => A(-) 2. A(-) + B => C There are 2 major steps in the overall reaction of A + B => C. The molecularity of this reaction depends on which of these is the rate limiting step, or which one has a greater energy of activation. (1) If the first step, ionization of A, is rate-limiting (ie it is more...

In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is the state in which both reactants and products are present at concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time. Usually, this state results when the forward reaction proceeds at the same rate as the reverse reaction. The reaction rates of the forward and backward reactions are generally not zero, but equal. Thus, there are no net changes in the concentrations of the reactant(s) and product(s). Such a state is known as dynamic equilibrium.  Heat is energy flowing from a high temperature object to a low temperature object. When the two objects are at the same temperature, there is no net flow of energy or heat. That is why a covered cup of coffee will not be colder than or warmer than the room temperature after it has been in there for a few hours. This phenomenon is known as equilibrium. In more...

In chemistry, a reaction quotient: Qr is a function of the activities or concentrations of the chemical species involved in a chemical reaction. In the special case that the reaction is at equilibrium the reaction quotient is equal to the equilibrium constant. A general chemical reaction in which α moles of a reactant A and β moles of a reactant B react to give σ moles of a product S and τ moles of a product T can be written as   αA + βB is in equilibrium with σS + τT The reaction is written as an equilibrium even though in many cases it may appear to have gone to completion. When a mixture of A and B is made up and the reaction is allowed to occur, the reaction quotient, Qr, is defined as:     where {Xt} more...

A reversible reaction is a chemical reaction that results in an equilibrium mixture of reactants and products. For a reaction involving two reactants and two products this can be expressed symbolically as  ï»¿   A and B can react to form C and D or, in the reverse reaction, C and D can react to form A and B. This is distinct from reversible process in thermodynamics.   The concentrations of reactants and products in an equilibrium mixture are determined by the analytical concentrations of the reagents (A and B or C and D) and the equilibrium constant, K. The magnitude of the equilibrium constant depends on the Gibbs free energy change for the reaction. So, when the free energy change is large (more than about 30 kJ mol−1), then the equilibrium constant is large (log K > 3) and the concentrations of the reactants at equilibrium are very small. Such a reaction is sometimes considered to be an irreversible reaction, more...

The double-slit experiment, sometimes called Young's experiment (after Young's interference experiment), is a demonstration that matter and energy can display characteristics of both classically defined waves and particles, and demonstrates the fundamentally probabilistic nature of quantum mechanical phenomena. In the basic version of this experiment, a coherent light source such as a laser beam illuminates a plate pierced by two parallel slits, and the light passing through the slits is observed on a screen behind the plate. The wave nature of light causes the light waves passing through the two slits to interfere, producing bright and dark bands on the screen—a result that would not be expected if light consisted of classical particles (i.e., small chunks of matter). However, the light is always found to be absorbed at the screen at discrete points, as individual particles (not waves), the interference pattern appearing via the varying density of these particle hits on the screen. This result establishes the principle known as wave–particle duality. Furthermore, versions of the experiment that include particle detectors at the more...

The Reimer–Tiemann reaction is a chemical reaction used for the ortho-formylation of phenols. The reaction was discovered by Karl Ludwig Reimer and Ferdinand Tiemann. In the simplest case, the product is salicylaldehyde:  The Reimer-Tiemann reaction is an organic reaction used to convert a phenol to an o-hydroxy benzalde-hyde using chloroform, a base, and acid work-up. The mechanism begins with abstraction of the proton from chloroform with the base to form a trichlorocarbanion which spontaneously loses a chloride ion to form a neutral dichlorocarbene. The base also deprotonates the phenol reagent which then attacks the carbene. A series of steps and a final acid work-up result in the o-hydroxy benzaldehyde product.  Mr. Lalit Sardana(IIT-JEE AIR 243) is teaching you Riemer-Tiemann reaction related to JEE Chemistry, he is one of the renowned lecturers in the field of education and he has been playing a more...

  Aldehydes:   1. Definition: Aldehydes are the organic compounds in which carbonyl group is attached to one hydrogen atom and one alkyl or aryl group.   2. General formula: O || C  /  R     H      R can be an alkyl or aryl group.     Ketones:   1. Definition: Ketones are the organic compounds in which carbonyl group is attached to two alkyl group or aryl group or both alkyl and aryl group   2. General formula: O || C  /   R      R’      R, R’ may be alkyl or aryl.   Carboxylic Acids:   1. Definition: Carboxylic acids are the compounds containing the carboxyl functional group (-COOH).   2. General Formula: O || C /    R   OH To get solutions of NCERT problems you can log on to    http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/chemical-kinetics/determination-of-order/1633 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-8-ncert-solution/1634 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-9-ncert-solution/1635 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-10-ncert-solution/1636 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-11-ncert-solution/1637 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-12-ncert-solution/1638 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-13-ncert-solution/1639 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-14-ncert-solution/1640 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-15-ncert-solution/1641 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-17-ncert-solution/1642 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-16-ncert-solution/1643 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-18-ncert-solution/1644 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-19-ncert-solution/1645 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-20/1646 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-20/1646 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-1-ncert-solution/1647 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-2-ncert-solution/1648 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-3-ncert-solution/1649 http://www.studyadda.com/videos/xii-class-chemistry-lectures/aldehydes-ketones-carboxylic-acids-ncert-solutions/aldehydes-ketones-and-carboxylic-acids-chapter-end-problem-4-ncert-solution/1650 more...