Current Affairs 12th Class

  Land Resources and Agriculture   You must have observed that the land around you is put to different uses. Some land is occupied by rivers, some may have trees and on some parts roads and buildings have been built. Different types of lands are suited to different uses. Human beings thus, use land as a resource for production as well as residence and recreation. Thus, the building of your school, roads on which you travel, parks in which you play, fields in which crops are grown and the pastures where animals graze represent different uses to which land is put.   Land Use Categories Land-use records are maintained by land revenue department. The land use categories add up to reporting area, which is somewhat different from the geographical area. The Survey of India is responsible for measuring geographical area of administrative units in India. Have you ever used a map prepared by Survey of India? The difference between the two concepts are that while the former changes somewhat depending on the estimates of the land revenue records, the latter does not change and stays fixed as per Survey of India measurements. You may be familiar with land use categories as they are also included in your Social Science textbook of Class X.   The land-use categories as maintained in the Land Revenue Records are as follows:   (i) Forests: It is important to note that area under actual forest cover is different from area classified as forest. The latter is the area which the Government has identified and demarcated for forest growth. The land revenue records are consistent with the latter definition. Thus, there may be an increase in this category without any increase in the actual forest cover. (ii) Land put to Non-agricultural Uses: Land under settlements (rural and urban), infrastructure (roads, canals, etc.), industries, shops, etc. are included in this category. An expansion in the secondary and tertiary activities would lead to an increase in this category of land-use. (iii) Barren and Wastelands: The land which may be classified as a wasteland such as barren hilly terrains, desert lands, ravines, etc. normally cannot be brought under cultivation with the available technology. (iv) Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands: Most of this type land is owned by the village ‘Panchayat’ or the Government. Only a small proportion of this land is privately owned. The land owned by the village panchayat comes under ‘Common Property Resources’. (v) Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves (Not included is Net sown Area): The land under orchards and fruit trees are included in this category. Much of this land is privately owned. (vi) Culturable Waste-Land: Any land which is left fallow (uncultivated) for more than five years is included in this category. It can be brought under cultivation after improving it through reclamation practices. (vii) Current Fallow: This is the land which is left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year. Fallowing more...

  Water Resources   Do you think that what exists today will continue to be so, or the future is going to be different in some respects? It can be said with some certainty that the societies will witness demographic transition, geographical shift of population, technological advancement, degradation of environment and water scarcity. Water scarcity is possibly to pose the greatest challenge on account of its increased demand coupled with shrinking supplies due to over utilisation and pollution. Water is a cyclic resource with abundant supplies on the globe. Approximately, 71 per cent of the earth’s surface is covered with it but fresh water constitutes only about 3 per cent of the total water. In fact, a very small proportion of fresh water is effectively available for human use. The availability of fresh water varies over space and time. The tensions and disputes on sharing and control of this scare resource are becoming contested issues among communities, regions, and states. The assessment, efficient use and conservation of water, therefore, become necessary to ensure development. In this chapter, we shall discuss water resources in India, its geographical distribution, sectoral utilisation, and methods of its conservation and management.   Water Resources of India India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world’s surface area, 4 per cent of the world’s water resources and about 16 per cent of world’s population. The total water available from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000 cubic km. The availability from surface water and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic km. Out of this only 60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses. Thus, the total utilizable water resource in the country is only 1,122 cubic km.   Surface Water Resources There are four major sources of surface water. These are rivers, lakes, ponds, and tanks. In the country, there are about 10,360 rivers and their tributaries longer than 1.6 km each. The mean annual flow in all the river basins in India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km. However, due to topographical, hydrological and other constraints, only about 690 cubic km (32 per cent) of the available surface water can be utilised. Water flow in a river depends on size of its catchment area or river basin and rainfall within its catchment area. You have studied in your Class XI textbook Indias: Physical Environment” that precipitation in India has very high spatial variation, and it is mainly concentrated in Monsoon season. You also have studied in the textbook that some of the rivers in the country like the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, and the Indus have huge catchment areas. Given that precipitation is relatively high in the catchment areas of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the Barak rivers, these rivers, although account for only about one-third of the total area in the country, have 60 per cent of the total surface water resources. Much of the annual water flow in south Indian rivers like the Godavari, more...

  Mineral and Energy Resources   India is endowed with a rich variety of mineral resources due to its varied geological structure. Bulk of the valuable minerals are products of pre-palaezoic age (Refer: Chapter 2 of Class XI, Textbook: “Fundamentals of Physical Geography” and are mainly associated with metamorphic and igneous rocks of the peninsular India. The vast alluvial plain tract of north India is devoid of minerals of economic use. The mineral resources provide the country with the necessary base for industrial development. In this chapter, we shall discuss the availability of various types of mineral and energy resources in the country.   A mineral is a natural substance of organic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and physical properties.   Types of Mineral Resources On the basis of chemical and physical properties, minerals may be grouped under two main categories of metallics and non-metallics which may further be classified as follows:   Fig. 7.1: Classification of Minerals             As, it is clear from the Fig. 7.1 metallic minerals are the sources of metals. Iron ore, copper, gold produce metal and are included in this category. Metallic minerals are further divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metallic minerals. Ferrous, as you know, refers to iron. All those minerals which have iron content are ferrous such as iron ore itself and those which do not have iron content are non-ferrous such as copper, bauxite, etc.   Non-metallic minerals are either organic in origin such as fossil fuels also known as mineral fuels which are derived from the buried animal and plant life such as coal and petroleum. Other type of non-metallic minerals are inorganic in origin such as mica, limestone and graphite, etc.   Minerals have certain characteristics. These are unevenly distributed over space. There is inverse relationship in quality and quantity of minerals i.e. good quality minerals are less in quantity as compared to low quality minerals. The third main characteristic is that all minerals are exhaustible over time. These take long to develop geologically and they cannot be replenished immediately at the time of need. Thus, they have to be conserved and not misused as they do not have the second crop.   Agencies involved in the Exploration of Minerals In India, systematic surveying, prospecting and exploration for minerals is undertaken by the Geological Survey of India (GSI), Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC), Mineral Exploration Corporation Ltd. (MECL), National Mineral Development Corporation (NMDC), Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM), Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. (BGML), Hindustan Copper Ltd. (HCL), National Aluminium Company Ltd. (NALCO) and the Departments of Mining and Geology in various states.   Distribution of Minerals in India Most of the metallic minerals in India occur in the peninsular plateau region in the old crystalline rocks. Over 97 percent of coal reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari. Petroleum reserves are located in the sedimentary basins of Assam, more...

  Manufacturing Industries   We use various items to satisfy our needs. Agricultural products like wheat, rice, etc. are to be processed into flour, husked rice before we consume these. But besides bread and rice, we also require clothes, books, fans, cars, medicines, etc. and these are manufactured in various industries. In modern times industries have become very important part of an economy. They provide employment to large labour force and contribute significantly in the total national wealth/income.   Types of Industries Industries are classified in a number of ways. On the basis of size, capital investment and labour force employed, industries are classified as large, medium, small scale, and cottage industries. On the basis of ownership, industries are categorised as:   (i) public sector, (ii) private sector, and (iii) joint and cooperative sector, Public sector enterprises are government/state controlled companies or corporations funded by governments. Industries of strategic and national importance are usually in the public sector. Industries are also classified on the basis of the use of their products such as: (i) basic goods industries, (ii) capital goods industries (iii) intermediate goods industries, and (iv) consumer goods industries.   Another method of classifying industries is on the basis of raw materials used by them. Accordingly, these can be: (i) agriculture based industries, (ii) forest-based industries, (iii) mineral-based industries, and (iv) industrially processed raw material based industries.   Another common classification of industries is based on the nature of the manufactured products. Eight classes of industries, thus identified are: (1) Metallurgical Industries, (2) Mechanical Engineering Industries, (3) Chemical and Allied Industries, (4) Textile Industries, (5) Food Processing Industries, (6) Electricity Generation, (7) Electronics and (8) Communication Industries.  Sometimes, you also read about foot loose industries. What are these? Have they any relationship with raw material location or not?   Location of Industries Can you guess the reasons for the location of iron and steel industry in eastern and southern India? Why is there no iron and steel industry in U.P., Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat?   Location of industries is influenced by several factors like access to raw materials, power, market, capital, transport and labour, etc. Relative significance of these factors varies with time and place. There is strong relationship between raw material and type of industry. It is economical to locate the manufacturing industries at a place where cost of production and delivery cost of manufactured goods to consumers are the least. Transport costs, to a great extent, depend on the nature of raw materials and manufactured products. A brief description of factors influencing the location of industries are given below:   Raw Materials Industries using weight-losing raw materials are located in the regions where raw materials are located. Why are the sugar mills in India located in sugarcane growing areas? Similarly, the locations of pulp industry, copper smelting and pig iron industries are located near their raw materials. In iron and steel industries, iron ore and coal both are weight-losing raw more...

  Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context   The word ‘planning’ is not new to you as it is a part of everyday usage. You must have used it with reference to preparation for your examination or visit to a hill station. It involves the process of thinking, formulation of a scheme or programme and implementation of a set of actions to achieve some goal. Though it is a very broad term, in this chapter, it has been used with reference to the process of economic development. It is, thus different from the traditional hit-and-miss methods by which   Overview of Planning Perspective in India India has centralised planning and the task of planning in India has been entrusted to the Planning Commission. It is a statutory body headed by the Prime Minister and has a Deputy Chairman and members. The planning in the country is largely carried out through Five Year Plans.   The First Five Year Plan was launched in 1951 and covered the period, 1951-52 to 1955-56. Second and Third Five Year Plans covered the period from 1956-57 to 1960-61 and 1961-62 to 1965-66 respectively. Two successive droughts during mid-sixties (1965-66 and 1966-67) and war with Pakistan in 1965 forced plan holiday in 1966-67 and 1968-69. This period was covered by annual plans, which are also termed as rolling plans. The Fourth Five Year Plan began in 1969-70 and ended in 1973-74. Following this the Fifth Five Year Plan began in 1974-75 but it was terminated by the then government one year earlier i.e. in 1977-78. The Sixth Five Year Plan took off in 1980. The Seventh Five Year Plan covered the period between 1985 and 1990. Once again due to the political instability and initiation of liberalisation policy, the Eighth Five Year Plan got delayed. It covered the period, 1992 to 1997. The Ninth Five Year Plan covered the period from 1997 to 2002. The Tenth Plan began in 2002 and it is still in progress. It will come to an end on 31.3.2007. The approach paper of the Eleventh Plan entitled. “Towards Faster and More Inclusive Growth” has already been approved.   reforms and reconstruction are often undertaken. Generally, there are two approaches to planning, i.e. sectoral planning and regional planning. The sectoral planning means formulation and implementation of the sets of schemes or programmes aimed at development of various sectors of the economy such as agriculture, irrigation, manufacturing, power, construction, transport, communication, social infrastructure and services.   There is no uniform economic development over space in any country. Some areas are more developed and some lag behind. This uneven pattern of development over space necessitates that the planners have a spatial perspective and draw the plans to reduce regional imbalance in development. This type of planning is termed as regional planning.   Target Area Planning The planning process has to take special care of those areas which have remained economically backward. As you know, the economic development more...

  Transport and Communication   We use many items in our daily life. From tooth paste to our bed tea, milk, clothes, soaps, food items, etc. are required every day. All these can be purchased from the market. Have you ever thought as to how these items are brought from the site of production? All the production is meant for consumption. From the fields and factory, the produce is brought to the place from where consumers purchase it. It is the transportation of these items from the site of their production to the market which make them available to the consumer.   We not only use material things like fruits, vegetables, books, clothes, etc. but also use ideas, views and messages in our daily life. Do you know we exchange our views, ideas and messages from one place to another or one individual to another while communicating with the help of various means?   The use of transport and communication depends upon our need to move things from place of their availability to the place of their use. Human-beings use various methods to move goods, commodities, ideas from one place to another.   The following diagram shows the major means of transportation.                Land Transport The pathways and unmetalled roads have been used for transportation in India since ancient times. With the economic and technological development, metalled roads and railways were developed to move large volume of goods and people from one place to another. Ropeways, cableways and pipelines were devised to cater to the demands of transporting specific goods under special circumstances.   Road Transport India has one of the largest road networks in the world with a total length of 33.1 lakh km (2005). About 85 per cent of passenger and 70 per cent of freight traffic are carried by roads every year. Road transport is relatively suitable for shorter distance travel.   Do You Know? Sher Shah Suri built the Shahi (Royal) road to strengthen and consolidate his empire from the Indus Valley to the Sonar Valley in Bengal. This road was renamed the Grand Trunk (GT) road during the British period, connecting Calcutta and Peshawar. At present, it extends from Amritsar to Kolkata. It is bifurcated into 2 segments: (a) National Highway (NH)-1 from Delhi to Amritsar, and (b) NH- 2 from Delhi to Kolkata.   Road transport in modern sense was very limited in India before World War-II. The first serious attempt was made in 1943 when ‘Nagpur Plan’ was drawn. This plan could not be implemented due to lack of coordination among the princely states and British India. After Independence, twenty-year road plan (1961) was introduced to improve the conditions of roads in India. However, roads continue to concentrate in and around urban centres. Rural and remote areas had the least connectivity by road.   For the purpose of construction and maintenance, roads are classified as National Highways (NH), more...

  International Trade   You have already studied about the various aspects of International trade in the book Fundamentals of Human Geography. International Trade is mutually beneficial as no country is self-sufficient. India’s International trade has undergone a sea change in recent years in terms of volume, composition as well as direction. Although India’s contribution in the world trade is as low as one per cent of the total volume, yet it plays a significant role in the world economy.   Let us examine the changing pattern of India’s International trade. In 1950-51, India’s external trade was worth Rs. 1,2140 million, which rose to Rs. 8,37, 1330 million in 2004 - 05. Can you calculate the percentage growth in 2004-2005 over 1950-51? There are numerous reasons for this sharp rise in overseas trade, such as, the momentum picked up by the manufacturing sectors, the liberal policies of the government and the diversification of markets.   The nature of India’s foreign trade has changed over the years (Table 11.1). Though there has been an increase in the total volume of import and export, the value of import continued to be higher than that of exports. There has also been an increase in trade deficit over the last couple of years. This increase in deficit is attributed to the price rise of crude petroleum which forms a major component of India’s import list.   Changing Pattern of the Composition of India’s Exports     Table 11.1 India’s Foreign Trade (in Million Rs.)

Year	Exports	Imports	Total Trade	Total Deficit
1994-95	826,740	899,710	1,72,6450	-72,970
more... Catgeory: 12th Class Geographical Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems   Geographical Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems   Environmental Pollution Environmental pollution results from ‘the release of substances and energy from waste products of human activities. There are many types of pollution. They are classified on the basis of medium through which pollutants are transported and diffused. Pollution can be classified into (i) air pollution, (ii) water pollution, (iii) land pollution and (iv) noise pollution.   Water Pollution Indiscriminate use of water by increasing population and industrial expansion has led degradation of the quality of water considerably. Surface water available from rivers, canals, lakes, etc. is never pure. It contains small quantities of suspended particles, organic and inorganic substances. When concentration of these substances increases, the water becomes polluted, and hence becomes unfit for use. In such a situation, the self-purifying capacity of water is unable to purify the water.   Fig.12.1: Cutting Through Effluent: Rowing through a pervasive layer of foam on the heavily polluted Yamuna on the outskirts of New Delhi   Though water pollutants are also created from natural sources (erosion, landslides, decay and decomposition of plants and animals, etc.) pollutants from human sources are the real causes of concern. Human beings pollute the water through industrial, agricultural and cultural activities. Among these activities, industry is the most significant contributor.   Table 12.1: Types and Sources of Pollution   Pollution Types Pollution Involved Sources of Pollution Air Pollution Oxides of sulphur \[\left( S{{O}_{2}}, S{{O}_{3}} \right)\] Oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, hydro-carbon, ammonia, lead, aldehydes asbestos and beryllium Combustion of coal, petrol and diesel, industrial processes, solid waste disposal, sewage disposal, etc. Water Pollution Odour, dissolved and suspended solids, ammonia and urea, nitrate and nitrites, chloride, fluoride, carbonates, oil and grease, insecticide and pesticide residue, tannin, coliform MPM (bacterial count) sulphates and sulphides, heavy metals e.g. lead, aresenic, mercury, manganese, etc., radioactive substances. more... Catgeory: 12th Class Notes - Mathematics Olympiads -Relations Functions                                                                                         Relations and Functions   To understand relations and functions let's consider two sets A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B ={2,3} Now, \[~A\times B=\{1,\,2,\,3,\,4,\}\times \{2,3\}=\{(1,\,2),\,(2,\,2),\,(3,\,2),\,(4,\,2),\,(1,\,3),\,(2,\,3),\,(3,\,3),\,(4,\,3)\}\] Let we choose an arbitrary set: R = [(1, 2), (2, 2), (1, 3), (4, 3)] Then R is said to be the relation between a set A to B.   Definition: Relation R is the subset of the Cartesian product\[A\times B\]. It is represented as \[R=\{(x,\,y):x\in A\,\,\,and\,\,\,y\in B\}\] Note: the 2nd element in the ordered pair (x, y) is the image of 1st element Sometime, it is said that a relation on the set A means the all members / elements of the relation R be the elements / members of\[A\times A\]. Solved Example Let \[A=\{1,\,2,\,3\}\] and a relation R is defined as \[R=\{(x,\,y):x<y\,\,where\,\,x,\,\,y\in A\}\] Sol. \[\because A=\{1,\,2,\,3\}\] \[A\times A=\{(1,\,1),\,(2,\,2),\,(3,\,3),\,(2,\,1),\,(3,\,1),\,(1,\,2)\,(3,\,2),\,(1,\,3),\,(2,\,3)\}\] \[\because \,\,\,\,\,\,\,x<y\] \[\therefore \,\,\,\,\,\,\,R=\{(x,\,y):x<y,\,\,and\,\,x,\,y\in A\}=\{(1,\,2),\,(2,\,3),\,(1,\,3)\}.\] Note: Let a set A has m elements and set B has n elements. Then \[n(A\times B)\] be \[m\times n\] elements so, total no. of relation from A to B or between A and B be\[{{2}^{m\,\,\times \,\,n}}\].   A relation can be represented algebraically either by Roster method or set builder method.   Types of relations (i)  Void Relation: A relation R on a set be said to be void or empty relation, if no element of A is related to any elements A. e.g A relation on set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} defined as \[R=\{(x,y):x+y=8\}.\] It is void relation on A because, sum of any two element of \[A\times A\] can not be 8. (ii) Universal relation: A relation on a set A is said to be universal relation. If each element of A is related to or associated with every element of A. (iii) Identity Relation:- A relation \[{{l}_{x}}\{(x,\,x):x\in A\}\] an a set A is said to be identity relation on A. (iv) Reflexive relation: A relation R on the set A is said to be the reflexive relation. If each and every element of set A is associated to itself. Hence, R is reflexive iff \[(a,\,a)\in R\,\,\forall \,\,a\in A.\] i.e. \[aRa\,\,\,\forall \,\,a\in A\] (v) Symmetric relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be symmetric relation iff \[(x,\,\,y)\in R\Rightarrow (y,\,x)\in R\,\,\forall \,\,x,\,\,y\in A.\] i.e.\[x\,R\,y\Rightarrow y\,R\,x\,\,\forall \,\,x,\,\,y\in R\] \[\because \,\,xRy\] is read as \[x\] is R-related to \[y\]. (vi) Antisymmetric relation: A relation which is not symmetric is said to be antisymmetric relation. (vii) Transitive relation: Let A be any non-empty set. A relation R on set A is said to be transitive relation R iff \[(x,\,y)\in R\] and \[(y,\,z)\in R\] then \[(x,\,z)\in R\,\,\forall \,\,x,y,z\in R.\] i.e. \[xRy\] and \[yRz\Rightarrow xRz\,\,\forall \,\,x,y,z\in R.\] (viii) Equivalence Relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be an equivalence relation on A iff (i) It is reflexive i.e. \[(x,y)\in R\,\,\forall \,\,x\in R\] (ii) It is symmetric more... Catgeory: 12th Class Notes - Mathematics Olympiads -Matrices and Determinats                                                                                          Matrices and Determinants   In previous classes, we have learnt the methods to solve linear equations. Let us consider the linear equations \[{{a}_{1}}x+{{b}_{1}}y={{c}_{1}}\]                        (i) \[{{a}_{2}}x+{{b}_{2}}y={{c}_{2}}\]                        (ii) We have one of the methods to solve these equation by cross multiplication method. \[\frac{x}{{{b}_{1}}{{c}_{2}}-{{b}_{2}}{{c}_{1}}}=\frac{y}{{{c}_{1}}{{a}_{2}}-{{c}_{2}}{{a}_{1}}}=\frac{1}{{{a}_{1}}{{b}_{2}}-{{a}_{2}}{{b}_{1}}}\] Now, we learn to solve such equations with the help of matrices and determinants.   Matrix: A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or expressions arranged in rows and columns. It is the shorthand of mathematics. It is an operator as addition, multiplication etc. Every matrix has come into existence through the solution of linear equations. Given linear equation can be solved by matrix method & it is written as, AX = B Where     Definition: It is the arrangement of things into horizontal rows and vertical column. Generally matrix is represented by [ ] (square bracket) or ( ) etc. Generally, it is represented as, where \[A=[{{a}_{ij}}]\]      i = 1, 2, 3, ........ m j = 1, 2, 3, ....... n. Here subscript i denotes no. of rows. & subscript j determines no. of columns. & \[{{a}_{ij}}\to \] represent the position of element a in the given matrix e.g \[A=[{{a}_{ij}}]\] & if            Order of Matrix: It is the symbol which represent that how many no. of rows and no. of columns the matrix has In the above example Order of matrix \[A=3\times 2\] in which 3 determine no. of row & 2 determine no. of column of given matrix.   Operation of Matrix: (a) Addition of matrices               (b) Subtraction of matrix (c) Multiplication of matrix                       (d) Adjoint of matrix (e) Inverse of matrixes.   Addition of Matrices: Let \[A={{[{{a}_{ij}}]}_{\,m\,\times \,n}}\] & \[B={{[{{b}_{ij}}]}_{\,m\,\times \,n}}\]be two matrices, having same order. Then A + B or B + A is a matrix whose elements be formed through corresponding addition of elements of two given matrices                                                           Subtraction of Matrices: The subtraction of a matrix takes place in the similar manner as the addition. But \[A-B\ne B-A\] i.e. \[A-B=-\,(B-A)\] Note: For addition or substraction operation of two or more than two matrices, the given matrices should be of the same order.   Multiplication operation: Let \[A={{[{{a}_{ij}}]}_{\,m\,\times \,k}}\] a matrix of order \[m\times k\]& \[B={{[{{b}_{ij}}]}_{\,k\,\times \,p}}\]is a matrix of order\[k\times p\]. For multiplication of two matrices, no. of columns of 1st matrix should be equal to no. of rows of 2nd matrix. Otherwise these matrices cannot be multiplied. \[A\times B=[{{c}_{ij}}]\] be a matrix whose order will be \[mxp.\] e.g. \[A{{\left[ \xrightarrow[5\,\,\,\,\,\,2\,\,\,\,\,\,1]{2\,\,\,\,\,\,1\,\,\,\,\,\,3} \right]}_{\,2\,\times \,3}}\] & more... 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